§4#2Ἡ μὲν οὖν ἀμφιβολία καὶ ὁμωνυμία παρὰ τούτους τοὺς τρόπους ἐστίν, παρὰ δὲ τὴν σύνθεσιν τὰ τοιάδε, οἷον τὸ δύνασθαι καθήμενον βαδίζειν καὶ μὴ γράφοντα γράφειν.
So ambiguity and homonymy depend on these modes, while composition depends on things of the following kind, such as to be able to walk while sitting and to write while not writing.
Οὐ γὰρ ταὐτὰ σημαίνει, ἂν διελών τις εἴπῃ καὶ συνθείς, ὡς δυνατὸν τὸν καθήμενον βαδίζειν καὶ μὴ γράφοντα γράφειν· καὶ τοῦθ᾿ ὡσαύτως ἄν τις συνθῇ, τὸν μὴ γράφοντα γράφειν· σημαίνει γὰρ ὡς ἔχει δύναμιν τοῦ μὴ γράφοντα γράφειν.
For it does not signify the same thing if one speaks by dividing and by combining, that 'it is possible for a sitting man to walk' and 'for one not writing to write'; and this likewise if one combines 'the one not writing to write'; for it signifies that he has the power of writing while not writing.
Ἐὰν δὲ μὴ συνθῇ, ὅτι ἔχει δύναμιν, ὅτε οὐ γράφει, τοῦ γράφειν.
But if one does not combine, it means that he has the power of writing at the time when he is not writing.
Καὶ μανθάνει νῦν γράμματα, εἴπερ ἐμάνθανεν ἃ ἐπίσταται. Ἔτι τὸ ἓν μόνον δυνάμενον φέρειν πολλὰ δύνασθαι φέρειν. Παρὰ δὲ τὴν διαίρεσιν, ὅτι τὰ πέντ᾿ ἐστὶ δύο καὶ τρία, καὶ περιττὰ καὶ ἄρτια, καὶ τὸ μεῖζον ἴσον· τοσοῦτον γὰρ καὶ ἔτι πρός. Ὁ γὰρ αὐτὸς λόγος διῃρημένος καὶ συγκείμενος οὐκ ἀεὶ ταὐτὸ σημαίνειν ἂν δόξειεν, οἷον
"Ἐγώ σ᾿ ἔθηκα δοῦλον ὄντ᾿ ελεύθερον
"
καὶ τὸ
"Πεντήκοντ᾿ ἀνδρῶν ἑκατὸν λίπε δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς. "
Παρὰ δὲ τὴν προσῳδίαν ἐν μὲν τοῖς ἄνευ γραφῆς διαλεκτικοῖς οὐ ῥᾴδιον ποιῆσαι λόγον, ἐν δὲ τοῖς γεγραμμένοις καὶ ποιήμασι μᾶλλον, οἷον καὶ τὸν Ὅμηρον ἔνιοι διορθοῦνται πρὸς τοὺς ἐλέγχοντας ὡς ἀτόπως εἰρηκότα
"Τὸ μὲν Ροὗ καταπύθεται ὄμβρῳ. "
Λύουσι γὰρ αὐτὸ τῇ προσῳδίᾳ, λέγοντες τὸ οὔ ὀξύτερον.
And 'he is learning now letters, if he was learning what he knows.' Furthermore, that 'one who is able to carry only one thing is able to carry many.' And depending on division, that 'five is two and three, and odd and even', and 'the greater is equal; for it is just so much and more besides.' For the same expression when divided and when combined would not always seem to signify the same thing, for example, "I made you a slave being free" and "Of fifty men a hundred left noble Achilles." Depending on accent, in discussions without writing it is not easy to construct an argument, but rather in written works and poetry, as, for example, some people correct Homer against those who criticize him as having spoken strangely: "part of which (ou) rots with rain." For they solve it by the accent, pronouncing the 'ou' more sharply.
Καὶ τὸ περὶ τὸ ἐνύπνιον τοῦ Ἀγαμέμνονος, ὅτι οὐκ αὐτὸς ὁ Ζεὺς εἶπεν
"Δίδομεν δέ οἱ εὖχος ἀρέσθαι,
"
ἀλλὰ τῷ ἐνυπνίῳ ἐνετέλλετο διδόναι.
And the passage concerning the dream of Agamemnon, because Zeus himself did not say, "We grant him to secure his prayer," but commanded the dream to grant it.
Τὰ μὲν οὖν τοιαῦτα παρὰ τὴν προσῳδίαν ἐστίν.
Such things, then, depend on accent.
Οἱ δὲ παρὰ τὸ σχῆμα τῆς λέξεως συμβαίνουσιν, ὅταν τὸ μὴ ταὐτὸ ὡσαύτως ἑρμηνεύηται, οἷον τὸ ἄρρεν θῆλυ ἢ τὸ θῆλυ ἄρρεν, ἢ τὸ μεταξὺ θάτερον τούτων, ἢ πάλιν τὸ ποιὸν ποσὸν ἢ τὸ ποσὸν ποιόν, ἢ τὸ ποιοῦν πάσχον ἢ τὸ διακείμενον ποιεῖν, καὶ τἆλλα δ᾿, ὡς διῄρηται πρότερον.
Those depending on the figure of speech occur when what is not the same is expressed in the same way, as when masculine is expressed as feminine, or feminine as masculine, or the neuter as either of these, or again, quality as quantity, or quantity as quality, or active as passive, or state as active, and the other categories as they were distinguished before.
Ἔστι γὰρ τὸ μὴ τῶν ποιεῖν ὂν ὡς τῶν ποιεῖν τι τῇ λέξει σημαίνειν.
For it is possible for what does not belong to the class of active to be signified by the expression as though it were something active.
Οἷον τὸ ὑγιαίνειν ὁμοίως τῷ σχήματι τῆς λέξεως λέγεται τῷ τέμνειν ἢ οἰκοδομεῖν· καίτοι τὸ μὲν ποιόν τι καὶ διακείμενόν πως δηλοῖ, τὸ δὲ ποιεῖν τι.
For example, 'to be well' is spoken of, in the figure of speech, similarly to 'to cut' or 'to build'; and yet the former indicates a certain quality and state, whereas the latter indicate a certain action.
Τὸν αὐτὸν δὲ τρόπον καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων.
The same is the case also with the other categories.
Οἱ μὲν οὖν παρὰ τὴν λέξιν ἔλεγχοι ἐκ τούτων τῶν τόπων εἰσίν.
Thus, refutations depending on language are from these places.
τῶν δ᾿ ἔξω τῆς λέξεως παραλογισμῶν εἴδη ἐστὶν ἑπτά, ἓν μὲν παρὰ τὸ συμβεβηκός, δεύτερον δὲ τὸ ἁπλῶς ἢ μὴ ἁπλῶς ἀλλὰ πῇ ἢ ποῦ ἢ ποτὲ ἢ πρός τι λέγεσθαι, τρίτον δὲ τὸ παρὰ τὴν τοῦ ἐλέγχου ἄγνοιαν, τέταρτον δὲ τὸ παρὰ τὸ ἑπόμενον, πέμπτον δὲ τὸ παρὰ τὸ ἐν ἀρχῇ λαμβάνειν, ἕκτον δὲ τὸ μὴ αἴτιον ὡς αἴτιον τιθέναι, ἕβδομον δὲ τὸ τὰ πλείω ἐρωτήματα ἓν ποιεῖν.
But of fallacious reasonings independent of language there are seven kinds: first, depending on accident; second, on saying something absolutely or not absolutely but in some respect, or in place, or at time, or in relation to something; third, depending on ignorance of the refutation; fourth, depending on the consequent; fifth, depending on assuming the original point; sixth, depending on positing non-cause as cause; seventh, depending on making several questions into one.