§8.1## Θ.
Τὰ μὲν οὖν περὶ τὴν ἄλλην φύσιν τῶν ζῴων καὶ τὴν γένεσιν τοῦτον ἔχει τὸν τρόπον· αἱ δὲ πράξεις καὶ οἱ βίοι κατὰ τὰ ἤθη καὶ τὰς τροφὰς διαφέρουσιν.
Book VIII So then, the matters concerning the other nature of animals and their generation are in this manner; but their actions and lives differ according to their characters and habits, and their foods.
Ἔνεστι γὰρ ἐν τοῖς πλείστοις καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων ἴχνη τῶν περὶ τὴν ψυχὴν τρόπων, ἅπερ ἐπὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων ἔχει φανερωτέρας τὰ διαφοράς·
For there exist in most of the other animals also traces of the dispositions concerning the soul, which present more manifest differences in the case of humans.
καὶ γὰρ ἡμερότης καὶ ἀγριότης, καὶ πραότης καὶ χαλεπότης, καὶ ἀνδρία καὶ δειλία, καὶ φόβοι καὶ θάρρη, καὶ θυμοὶ καὶ πανουργίαι καὶ τῆς περὶ τὴν διάνοιαν συνέσεως ἔνεισιν ἐν πολλοῖς αὐτῶν ὁμοιότητες, καθάπερ ἐπὶ τῶν μερῶν ἐλέγομεν.
For indeed, tameness and wildness, gentleness and harshness, courage and cowardice, fears and confidence, angers and craftiness, and similarities of understanding connected with intellect exist in many of them, just as we were saying in the case of their parts.
Τὰ μὲν γὰρ τῷ μᾶλλον καὶ ἧττον διαφέρει πρὸς τὸν ἄνθρωπον, καὶ ὁ ἄνθρωπος πρὸς πολλὰ τῶν ζῴων (ἔνια γὰρ τῶν τοιούτων ὑπάρχει μᾶλλον ἐν ἀνθρώπῳ, ἔνια δ’ ἐν τοῖς ἄλλοις ζῴοις μᾶλλον), τὰ δὲ τῷ ἀνάλογον διαφέρει·
For some of these qualities differ by "the more and the less" in relation to humans, and humans in relation to many of the animals (for some of such qualities exist more in humans, and others more in the other animals), while others differ by analogy.
ὡς γὰρ ἐν ἀνθρώπῳ τέχνη καὶ σοφία καὶ σύνεσις, οὕτως ἐνίοις τῶν ζῴων ἐστί τις ἑτέρα τοιαύτη φυσικὴ δύναμις.
For as in humans there is art, wisdom, and understanding, so in some of the animals there is a certain other such natural capacity.
Φανερώτατον δ’ ἐστὶ τὸ τοιοῦτον ἐπὶ τὴν τῶν παίδων ἡλικίαν βλέψασιν· ἐν τούτοις γὰρ τῶν μὲν ὕστερον ἕξεων ἐσομένων ἔστιν ἰδεῖν οἷον ἴχνη καὶ σπέρματα, διαφέρει δ’ οὐθὲν ὡς εἰπεῖν ἡ ψυχὴ τῆς τῶν θηρίων ψυχῆς κατὰ τὸν χρόνον τοῦτον, ὥστ’ οὐδὲν ἄλογον εἰ τὰ μὲν ταὐτὰ τὰ δὲ παραπλήσια τὰ δ’ ἀνάλογον ὑπάρχει τοῖς ἄλλοις ζῴοις.
And this is most manifest to those who look at the age of children; for in them one can see, as it were, traces and seeds of the dispositions that will exist later, and during this time their soul differs, so to speak, in no way from the soul of wild beasts, so that it is not at all unreasonable if some of the same qualities, some similar, and some analogous exist in the other animals.
Οὕτω δ’ ἐκ τῶν ἀψύχων εἰς τὰ ζῷα μεταβαίνει κατὰ μικρὸν ἡ φύσις, ὥστε τῇ συνεχείᾳ λανθάνειν τὸ μεθόριον αὐτῶν καὶ τὸ μέσον ποτέρων ἐστίν.
And so nature transitions little by little from inanimate things to animals, so that because of this continuity their boundary is hidden, and also which of the two sides the middle belongs to.
Μετὰ γὰρ τὸ τῶν ἀψύχων γένος τὸ τῶν φυτῶν πρῶτόν ἐστιν· καὶ τούτων ἕτερον πρὸς ἕτερον διαφέρει τῷ μᾶλλον δοκεῖν μετέχειν ζωῆς, ὅλον δὲ τὸ γένος πρὸς μὲν τἆλλα σώματα φαίνεται σχεδὸν ὥσπερ ἔμψυχον, πρὸς δὲ τὸ τῶν ζῴων ἄψυχον.
For after the class of inanimate things, the class of plants is first; and among these, one differs from another in appearing to participate more in life, but the whole class, in comparison with the other bodies, appears almost as if it had a soul, but in comparison with that of animals, as if it were inanimate.
Ἡ δὲ μετάβασις ἐξ αὐτῶν εἰς τὰ ζῷα συνεχής ἐστιν, ὥσπερ ἐλέχθη πρότερον.
And the transition from them to animals is continuous, as was said before.
Ἔνια γὰρ τῶν ἐν τῇ θαλάττῃ διαπορήσειεν ἄν τις πότερον ζῷόν ἐστιν ἢ φυτόν· προσπέφυκε γάρ, καὶ χωριζόμενα πολλὰ διαφθείρεται τῶν τοιούτων, οἷον αἱ μὲν πίνναι προσπεφύκασιν, οἱ δὲ σωλῆνες ἀνασπασθέντες οὐ δύνανται ζῆν.
For regarding some of those things in the sea, one might be at a loss whether it is an animal or a plant; for they are attached, and many of such things perish when separated, as for instance the pinnae are attached, and the razor-shells cannot live when pulled up.
Ὅλως δὲ πᾶν τὸ γένος τὸ τῶν ὀστρακοδέρμων φυτοῖς ἔοικε πρὸς τὰ πορευτικὰ τῶν ζῴων.
In general, the whole class of testaceans resembles plants in comparison with those animals that walk.
Καὶ περὶ αἰσθήσεως, τὰ μὲν αὐτῶν οὐδὲ ἓν σημαίνεται, τὰ δ’ ἀμυδρῶς.
And concerning sensation, some of them show no sign of it at all, and others only dimly.
Ἡ δὲ τοῦ σώματος ἐνίων σαρκώδης ἐστὶ φύσις, οἷον τά τε καλούμενα τήθυα καὶ τὸ τῶν ἀκαληφῶν γένος· ὁ δὲ σπόγγος παντελῶς ἔοικε τοῖς φυτοῖς.
And the nature of the body of some is fleshy, such as those called tethya and the class of sea-anemones; but the sponge resembles plants completely.
Ἀεὶ δὲ κατὰ μικρὰν διαφορὰν ἕτερα πρὸ ἑτέρων ἤδη φαίνεται μᾶλλον ζωὴν ἔχοντα καὶ κίνησιν.
And always, by a small difference, one thing after another already appears to possess more life and movement.
Καὶ κατὰ τὰς τοῦ βίου δὲ πράξεις τὸν αὐτὸν ἔχει τρόπον.
And concerning the actions of life, it is in the same manner.
Τῶν τε γὰρ φυτῶν ἔργον οὐδὲν ἄλλο φαίνεται πλὴν οἷον αὐτὸ ποιῆσαι πάλιν ἕτερον, ὅσα γίνεται διὰ σπέρματος· ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τῶν ζῴων ἐνίων παρὰ τὴν γένεσιν οὐδὲν ἔστιν ἄλλο λαβεῖν ἔργον.
For of plants, no other work appears to exist except to make another like itself, as many as are produced through seed; and similarly, of some animals, one can find no other work besides generation.
Διόπερ αἱ μὲν τοιαῦται πράξεις κοιναὶ πάντων εἰσί· προσούσης δ’ αἰσθήσεως ἤδη, περί τε τὴν ὀχείαν διὰ τὴν ἡδονὴν διαφέρουσιν αὐτῶν οἱ βίοι, καὶ περὶ τοὺς τόκους καὶ τὰς ἐκτροφὰς τῶν τέκνων.
Therefore, such actions are common to all; but when sensation is also present, their lives already differ concerning copulation on account of pleasure, and concerning births and the rearing of offspring.
Τὰ μὲν οὖν ἁπλῶς, ὥσπερ φυτά, κατὰ τὰς ὥρας ἀποτελεῖ τὴν οἰκείαν γένεσιν· τὰ δὲ καὶ περὶ τὰς τροφὰς ἐκπονεῖται τῶν τέκνων, ὅταν δ’ ἀποτελέσῃ, χωρίζονται καὶ κοινωνίαν οὐδεμίαν ἔτι ποιοῦνται· τὰ δὲ συνετώτερα καὶ κοινωνοῦντα μνήμης ἐπὶ πλέον καὶ πολιτικώτερον χρῶνται τοῖς ἀπογόνοις.
Some, then, simply like plants, complete their proper generation according to the seasons; others also labor concerning the food of their offspring, but when they complete this, they separate and make no further association; but those that are more intelligent and share in memory make use of their offspring for a longer time and in a more social way.
Ἒν μὲν οὖν μέρος τῆς ζωῆς αἱ περὶ τὴν τεκνοποιίαν εἰσὶ πράξεις αὐτοῖς, ἔτι δ’ ἕτερον αἱ περὶ τὴν τροφήν· περὶ γὰρ δύο τούτων αἵ τε σπουδαὶ τυγχάνουσιν οὖσαι πᾶσαι καὶ ὁ βίος.
One part of life, therefore, for them is the actions concerning child-producing, and still another is those concerning food; for all their efforts and life happen to be about these two.
Αἱ δὲ τροφαὶ διαφέρουσι μάλιστα κατὰ τὴν ὕλην ἐξ οἵας συνεστήκασιν.
And foods differ most according to the material of which they consist.
Ἡ γὰρ αὔξησις ἑκάστοις γίνεται κατὰ φύσιν ἐκ ταύτης.
For growth occurs for each naturally from this.
Τὸ δὲ κατὰ φύσιν ἡδύ· διώκει δὲ πάντα τὴν κατὰ φύσιν ἡδονήν.
And what is natural is pleasant; and all things pursue natural pleasure.