§1.1#2Αἱ δὲ διαφοραὶ τῶν ζῴων εἰσὶ κατά τε τοὺς βίους καὶ τὰς πράξεις καὶ τὰ ἤθη καὶ τὰ μόρια, περὶ ὧν τύπῳ μὲν εἴπωμεν πρῶτον, ὕστερον δὲ περὶ ἕκαστον γένος ἐπιστήσαντες ἐροῦμεν.
The differences of animals are in respect of their modes of life, their actions, their characters, and their parts, concerning which we shall first speak in outline, and afterwards we shall discuss them by directing our attention to each genus.
Εἰσὶ δὲ διαφοραὶ κατὰ μὲν τοὺς βίους καὶ τὰ ἤθη καὶ τὰς πράξεις αἱ τοιαίδε, ᾗ τὰ μὲν ἔνυδρα αὐτῶν ἐστὶ τὰ δὲ χερσαῖα, ἔνυδρα δὲ διχῶς, τὰ μὲν ὅτι τὸν βίον καὶ τὴν τροφὴν ποιεῖται ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ, καὶ δέχεται τὸ ὑγρὸν καὶ ἀφίησι, τούτου δὲ στερισκόμενα οὐ δύναται ζῆν, οἷον πολλοῖς συμβαίνει τῶν ἰχθύων· τὰ δὲ τὴν μὲν τροφὴν ποιεῖται καὶ τὴν διατριβὴν ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ, οὐ μέντοι δέχεται τὸ ὕδωρ ἀλλὰ τὸν ἀέρα, καὶ γεννᾷ ἔξω.
Now, the differences in respect of their modes of life, characters, and actions are of the following kinds, in that some of them are aquatic and others terrestrial. Aquatic is used in two ways: some because they pass their life and obtain their food in the fluid, and admit and emit the fluid, and when deprived of this they cannot live, as happens to many of the fish; others obtain their food and pass their time in the fluid, yet they do not admit water but air, and breed outside.
Πολλὰ δ’ ἐστὶ τοιαῦτα καὶ πεζά, ὥσπερ ἐνυδρὶς καὶ λάταξ καὶ κροκόδειλος, καὶ πτηνά, οἷον αἴθυια καὶ κολυμβίς, καὶ ἄποδα, οἷον ὕδρος.
Many such animals are also land animals, like the otter, the beaver, and the crocodile, and winged, like the shearwater and the diver, and footless, like the water-snake.
Ἔνια δὲ τὴν μὲν τροφὴν ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ ποιεῖται καὶ οὐ δύναται ζῆν ἐκτός, οὐ μέντοι δέχεται οὔτε τὸν ἀέρα οὔτε τὸ ὑγρόν, οἷον ἀκαλήφη καὶ τὰ ὄστρεα.
Some obtain their food in the fluid and cannot live outside, yet they admit neither air nor fluid, like the sea-anemone and shellfish.
Τῶν δ’ ἐνύδρων τὰ μέν ἐστι θαλάττια, τὰ δὲ ποτάμια, τὰ δὲ λιμναῖα, τὰ δὲ τελματιαῖα, οἷον βάτραχος καὶ κορδύλος.
Of the aquatic, some are marine, others riverine, others lacustrine, and others marshy, as the frog and the newt.
Τῶν δὲ χερσαίων τὰ μὲν δέχεται τὸν ἀέρα καὶ ἀφίησιν, ὃ καλεῖται ἀναπνεῖν καὶ ἐκπνεῖν, οἷον ἄνθρωπος καὶ πάντα ὅσα πνεύμονα ἔχει τῶν χερσαίων· τὰ δὲ τὸν ἀέρα μὲν οὐ δέχεται, ζῇ δὲ καὶ τὴν τροφὴν ἔχει ἐν τῇ γῇ, οἷον σφὴξ καὶ μέλιττα καὶ τὰ ἄλλα ἔντομα.
Of the terrestrial, some admit and emit air, which is called inhaling and exhaling, as man and all those among terrestrial animals that have lungs; others do not admit air, but live and obtain their food in the earth, as the wasp, the bee, and other insects.
Καλῶ δ’ ἔντομα ὅσα ἔχει κατὰ τὸ σῶμα ἐντομάς, ἢ ἐν τοῖς ὑπτίοις ἢ ἐν τούτοις τε καὶ τοῖς πρανέσιν.
And I call insects those which have incisions in their bodies, either on their under-sides, or both on these and on their upper-sides.
Καὶ τῶν μὲν χερσαίων πολλά, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, ἐκ τοῦ ὑγροῦ τὴν τροφὴν πορίζεται, τῶν δ’ ἐνύδρων καὶ δεχομένων τὴν θάλατταν οὐδὲν ἐκ τῆς γῆς.
And many of the terrestrial animals, as has been said, procure their food from the fluid, but of the aquatic that admit sea-water, none does so from the land.
Ἔνια δὲ τῶν ζῴων τὸ μὲν πρῶτον ζῇ ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ, ἔπειτα μεταβάλλει εἰς ἄλλην μορφὴν καὶ ζῇ ἔξω, οἷον ἐπὶ τῶν ἐν τοῖς ποταμοῖς ἐμπίδων· γίνεται γὰρ ἐξ αὐτῶν ὁ οἶστρος.
Some animals at first live in the fluid, and then change into another form and live outside, as in the case of the gnats in rivers; for from them the gadfly is produced.
Ἔτι τὰ μέν ἐστι μόνιμα τῶν ζῴων, τὰ δὲ μεταβλητικά.
Further, some animals are stationary, and others locomotive.
Ἔστι δὲ τὰ μόνιμα ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ· τῶν δὲ χερσαίων οὐδὲν μόνιμον.
The stationary are in the fluid, and none of the terrestrial is stationary.
Ἐν δὲ τῷ ὑγρῷ πολλὰ τῷ προσπεφυκέναι ζῇ, οἷον γένη ὀστρέων πολλά.
In the fluid, many live by being attached, as many genera of shellfish.
Δοκεῖ δὲ καὶ ὁ σπόγγος ἔχειν τινὰ αἴσθησιν· σημεῖον δὲ ὅτι χαλεπώτερον ἀποσπᾶται, ἂν μὴ γένηται λαθραίως ἡ κίνησις, ὥς φασιν.
And the sponge also seems to have some sensation; a sign of this is that, as they say, it is more difficult to detach unless the movement is made stealthily.
Τὰ δὲ καὶ προσφύεται καὶ ἀπολύεται, οἷόν ἐστι γένος τι τῆς καλουμένης ἀκαλήφης· τούτων γάρ τινες νύκτωρ ἀπολυόμεναι νέμονται.
Others both attach themselves and detach, like a certain genus of the so-called sea-anemone; for some of these detach themselves at night and feed.
Πολλὰ δ’ ἀπολελυμένα μέν ἐστιν ἀκίνητα δέ, οἷον ὄστρεα καὶ τὰ καλούμενα ὁλοθούρια.
Many, though detached, are motionless, as shellfish and the so-called holothurians.
Τὰ δὲ νευστικά, οἷον ἰχθύες καὶ τὰ μαλάκια καὶ τὰ μαλακόστρακα, οἷον κάραβοι.
Others are swimming, as fish, mollusks, and malacostracans, like the crawfish.
Τὰ δὲ πορευτικά, οἷον τὸ τῶν καρκίνων γένος· τοῦτο γὰρ ἔνυδρον ὂν τὴν φύσιν πορευτικόν ἐστιν.
Others are walking, as the genus of crabs; for this, though being aquatic in nature, is walking.
Τῶν δὲ χερσαίων ἐστὶ τὰ μὲν πτηνά, ὥσπερ ὄρνιθες καὶ μέλιτται, καὶ ταῦτ’ ἄλλον τρόπον ἀλλήλων, τὰ δὲ πεζά.
Of the terrestrial, some are winged, like birds and bees (and these in different ways from one another), and others are land-walkers.
Καὶ τῶν πεζῶν τὰ μὲν πορευτικά, τὰ δ’ ἑρπυστικά, τὰ δὲ ἰλυσπαστικά.
And of the land-walkers, some are walking, others creeping, and others wriggling.
Πτηνὸν δὲ μόνον οὐδέν ἐστιν, ὥσπερ νευστικὸν μόνον ἰχθύς· καὶ γὰρ τὰ δερμόπτερα πεζεύει, καὶ νυκτερίδι πόδες εἰσί, καὶ τῇ φώκῃ κεκολοβωμένοι πόδες.
But there is no animal that is only winged, as the fish is only swimming; for even those with skin-wings walk, and the bat has feet, and the seal has maimed feet.
Καὶ τῶν ὀρνίθων εἰσί τινες κακόποδες, οἳ διὰ τοῦτο καλοῦνται ἄποδες· ἔστι δὲ εὔπτερον τοῦτο τὸ ὀρνίθιον.
And among birds there are some with bad feet, which on this account are called footless (apodes); but this little bird is well-winged.
Σχεδὸν δὲ καὶ τὰ ὅμοια αὐτῷ εὔπτερα μὲν κακόποδα δ’ ἐστίν, οἷον χελιδὼν καὶ δρεπανίς· ὁμοιότροπά τε γὰρ καὶ ὁμοιόπτερα πάντα ταῦτα, καὶ τὰς ὄψεις ἐγγὺς ἀλλήλων.
Almost all that are similar to it are well-winged but have bad feet, as the swallow and the swift; for all these are similar in habits and similar in wings, and their appearances are close to one another.
Φαίνεται δ’ ὁ μὲν ἄπους πᾶσαν ὥραν, ἡ δὲ δρεπανὶς ὅταν ὕσῃ τοῦ θέρους· τότε γὰρ ὁρᾶται καὶ ἁλίσκεται, ὅλως δὲ καὶ σπάνιόν ἐστι τοῦτο τὸ ὄρνεον.
The apus is seen in every season, but the swift only when it rains in summer; for then it is seen and caught, and generally this bird is rare.
Πορευτικὰ δὲ καὶ νευστικὰ πολλὰ τῶν ζῴων ἐστίν.
Many animals are both walking and swimming.