§2.1## Β.
Ἔστι δὲ τῶν προβλημάτων τὰ μὲν καθόλου τὰ δ᾿ ἐπὶ μέρους.
Β. Of problems, some are universal and others are particular.
Καθόλου μὲν οὖν οἷον ὅτι πᾶσα ἡδονὴ ἀγαθὸν καὶ ὅτι οὐδεμία ἡδονὴ ἀγαθόν, ἐπὶ μέρους δὲ οἷον ὅτι ἔστι τις ἡδονὴ ἀγαθὸν καὶ ὅτι ἔστι τις ἡδονὴ οὐκ ἀγαθόν.
Universal, for instance, are that all pleasure is good and that no pleasure is good; and particular, for instance, are that some pleasure is good and that some pleasure is not good.
Ἔστι δὲ πρὸς ἀμφότερα τὰ γένη τῶν προβλημάτων κοινὰ τὰ καθόλο κατασκευαστικὰ καὶ ἀνασκευαστικά· δείξαντες γὰρ ὅτι παντὶ ὑπάρχει, καὶ ὅτι τινὶ ὑπάρχει δεδειχότες ἐσόμεθα.
And the universal methods of establishing and refuting are common to both genera of problems; for by having shown that it belongs to all, we shall also have shown that it belongs to some.
Ὁμοίως δὲ κἂν ὅτι οὐδενὶ ὑπάρχει δείξωμεν, καὶ ὅτι οὐ παντὶ ὑπάρχει δεδειχότες ἐσόμεθα.
Similarly, also, if we should show that it belongs to none, we shall also have shown that it does not belong to all.
Πρῶτον οὖν περὶ τῶν καθόλου ἀνασκευαστικῶν ῥητέον διά τε τὸ κοινὰ εἶναι τὰ τοιαῦτα πρὸς τὰ καθόλου καὶ τὰ ἐπὶ μέρους, καὶ διὰ τὸ μᾶλλον τὰς θέσεις κομίζειν ἐν τῷ ὑπάρχειν ἢ μή, τοὺς δὲ διαλεγομένους ἀνασκευάζειν.
First, then, we must speak about universal refutative arguments, both because such arguments are common to both universal and particular problems, and because people rather bring forward their theses in terms of belonging, while those who discuss refute them.
Ἔστι δὲ χαλεπώτατον τὸ ἀντιστρέφειν τὴν ἀπὸ τοῦ συμβεβηκότος οἰκείαν ὀνομασίαν· τὸ γὰρ πῇ καὶ μὴ καθόλου ἐπὶ μόνων ἐνδέχεται τῶν συμβεβηκότων.
But it is most difficult to convert the designation proper derived from an accident; for being in some respect and not universally is possible only in the case of accidents.
Ἀπὸ μὲν γὰρ τοῦ ὅρου καὶ τοῦ ἰδίου καὶ τοῦ γένους ἀναγκαῖον ἀντιστρέφειν, οἷον εἰ ὑπάρχει τινὶ ζῴῳ πεζῷ δίποδι εἶναι, ἀντιστρέψαντι ἀληθὲς ἔσται λέγειν ὅτι ζῷον πεζὸν δίπουν ἐστίν.
For from definition, property, and genus, conversion is necessary; for example, if belonging to walk on two feet belongs to something, it will be true for one who converts to say that it is a two-footed walking animal.
Ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ ἀπὸ τοῦ γένους· εἰ γὰρ ζῴῳ ὑπάρχει τινὶ εἶναι, ζῷόν ἐστιν.
Similarly also from genus; for if belonging to animal belongs to something, it is an animal.
Τὰ δ᾿ αὐτὰ καὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ ἰδίου· εἰ γὰρ ὑπάρχει τινὶ γραμματικῆς δεκτικῷ εἶναι, γραμματικῆς δεκτικὸν ἔσται.
And the same holds also in the case of a property; for if belonging to capable of learning grammar belongs to something, it will be capable of learning grammar.
Οὐδὲν γὰρ τούτων ἐνδέχεται κατά τι ὑπάρχειν ἢ μὴ ὑπάρχειν, ἀλλ᾿ ἁπλῶς ἢ ὑπάρχειν ἢ μὴ ὑπάρχειν.
For none of these can belong or not belong in some respect, but they must belong or not belong absolutely.
Ἐπὶ δὲ τῶν συμβεβηκότων οὐδὲν κωλύει κατά τι ὑπάρχειν, οἷον λευκότητα ἢ δικαιοσύνην, ὥστε οὐκ ἀπόχρη τὸ δεῖξαι ὅτι ὑπάρχει λευκότης ἢ δικαιοσύνη πρὸς τὸ δεῖξαι ὅτι λευκὸς ἢ δίκαιός ἐστιν· ἔχει γὰρ ἀμφισβήτησιν ὅτι κατά τι λευκὸς ἢ δίκαιός ἐστιν.
In the case of accidents, however, nothing prevents them from belonging in some respect, as for instance whiteness or justice; so that it is not sufficient to show that whiteness or justice belongs in order to show that something is white or just; for it admits of dispute that it is white or just only in some respect.
Ὥστ᾿ οὐκ ἀναγκαῖον ἐπὶ τῶν συμβεβηκότων τὸ ἀντιστρέφειν.
Therefore, conversion is not necessary in the case of accidents.
Διορίσασθαι δὲ δεῖ καὶ τὰς ἁμαρτίας τὰς ἐν τοῖς προβλήμασιν, ὅτι εἰσὶ διτταί, ἢ τῷ ψεύδεσθαι ἢ τῷ παραβαίνειν τὴν κειμένην λέξιν.
And one must also define the errors in problems, that they are of two kinds, either by lying or by transgressing the established language.
Οἵ τε γὰρ ψευδόμενοι καὶ τὸ μὴ ὑπάρχον ὑπάρχειν τινὶ λέγοντες ἁμαρτάνουσι· καὶ οἱ τοῖς ἀλλοτρίοις ὀνόμασι τὰ πράγματα προσαγορεύοντες, οἷον τὴν πλάτανον ἄνθρωπον, παραβαίνουσι τὴν κειμένην ὀνομασίαν.
For both those who lie and say that what does not belong belongs to something commit an error; and those who address things by alien names, for instance calling a plane tree a man, transgress the established designation.