§33#2Ἐκ πόσων μὲν οὖν καὶ ποίων γίνονται τοῖς διαλεγομένοις οἱ παραλογισμοί, καὶ πῶς δείξομέν τε ψευδόμενον καὶ παράδοξα λέγειν ποιήσομεν, ἔτι δ᾿ ἐκ τίνων συμβαίνει ὁ συλλογισμός, καὶ πῶς ἐρωτητέον καὶ τίς ἡ τάξις τῶν ἐρωτημάτων, ἔτι πρὸς τί χρήσιμοι πάντες εἰσὶν οἱ τοιοῦτοι λόγοι, καὶ περὶ ἀποκρίσεως ἁπλῶς τε πάσης καὶ πῶς λυτέον τοὺς λόγους καὶ τοὺς συλλογισμούς, εἰρήσθω περὶ ἁπάντων ἡμῖν ταῦτα.
Therefore, as to the questions of from how many and what causes paralogisms arise for those who dispute, and how we shall both show the opponent to be lying and make them speak paradoxes, and further from what premises a syllogism occurs, and how we should question and what is the order of the questions, and further for what all such arguments are useful, and concerning every answer in general and how we should solve both arguments and syllogisms—let these things have been said by us concerning all of them.
Λοιπὸν δὲ περὶ τῆς ἐξ ἀρχῆς προθέσεως ἀναμνήσασιν εἰπεῖν τι βραχὺ περὶ αὐτῆς καὶ τέλος ἐπιθεῖναι τοῖς εἰρημένοις.
What remains, after reminding ourselves of our original proposal, is to say some short thing about it and to bring a conclusion to what has been said.
Προειλόμεθα μὲν οὖν εὑρεῖν δύναμίν τινα συλλογιστικὴν περὶ τοῦ προβληθέντος ἐκ τῶν ὑπαρχόντων ὡς ἐνδοξοτάτων· τοῦτο γὰρ ἔργον ἐστὶ τῆς διαλεκτικῆς καθ᾿ αὑτὴν καὶ τῆς πειραστικῆς.
We proposed, then, to find a certain syllogistic faculty concerning the problem set before us, starting from the most plausible of the premises available; for this is the function of dialectic in itself and of examinational inquiry.
Ἐπεὶ δὲ προσκατασκευάζεται πρὸς αὐτὴν διὰ τὴν τῆς σοφιστικῆς γειτνίασιν, ὡς οὐ μόνον πεῖραν δύναται λαβεῖν διαλεκτικῶς ἀλλὰ καὶ ὡς εἰδώς, διὰ τοῦτο οὐ μόνον τὸ λεχθὲν ἔργον ὑπεθέμεθα τῆς πραγματείας, τὸ λόγον δύνασθαι λαβεῖν, ἀλλὰ καὶ ὅπως λόγον ὑπέχοντες φυλάξομεν τὴν θέσιν ὡς δι᾿ ἐνδοξοτάτων ὁμοτρόπως.
Since, however, there is additionally constructed in relation to it, on account of its proximity to sophistry, <the power> that it can not only test dialectically but also as if knowing, for this reason we assumed as the task of this study not only the said function, to be able to extract an argument, but also how, when maintaining an argument, we shall defend the thesis in a similar way through the most plausible premises.
Τὴν δ᾿ αἰτίαν εἰρήκαμεν τούτου, ἐπεὶ καὶ διὰ τοῦτο Σωκράτης ἠρώτα, ἀλλ᾿ οὐκ ἀπεκρίνετο· ὡμολόγει γὰρ οὐκ εἰδέναι.
And we have stated the cause of this, since it was also for this reason that Socrates used to question, but not answer; for he confessed that he did not know.
Δεδήλωται δ᾿ ἐν τοῖς πρότερον καὶ πρὸς πόσα καὶ ἐκ πόσων τοῦτο ἔσται, καὶ ὅθεν εὐπορήσομεν τούτων, ἔτι δὲ πῶς ἐρωτητέον ἢ τακτέον τὴν ἐρώτησιν πᾶσαν, καὶ περί τε ἀποκρίσεων καὶ λύσεων τῶν πρὸς τοὺς συλλογισμούς.
And it has been shown in our previous writings both in respect to how many subjects and from how many premises this will be, and from what sources we shall have an abundance of these, and further how one must question or arrange the whole questioning, and concerning both answers and solutions in relation to syllogisms.
Δεδήλωται δὲ καὶ περὶ τῶν ἄλλων, ὅσα τῆς αὐτῆς μεθόδου τῶν λόγων ἐστίν.
It has also been shown concerning the other things, as many as belong to the same method of arguments.
Πρὸς δὲ τούτοις περὶ τῶν παραλογισμῶν διεληλύθαμεν, ὥσπερ εἰρήκαμεν ἤδη πρότερον.
In addition to these, we have gone through the subject of paralogisms, just as we have already said before.
Ὅτι μὲν οὖν ἔχει τέλος ἱκανῶς ἃ προειλόμεθα, φανερόν· δεῖ δ᾿ ἡμᾶς μὴ λεληθέναι τὸ συμβεβηκὸς περὶ ταύτην τὴν πραγματείαν.
That, therefore, what we proposed has its end sufficiently, is clear; but we must not fail to notice what has happened regarding this study.
Τῶν γὰρ εὑρισκομένων ἁπάντων τὰ μὲν παρ᾿ ἑτέρων ληφθέντα πρότερον πεπονημένα κατὰ μέρος ἐπιδέδωκεν ὑπὸ τῶν παραλαβόντων ὕστερον· τὰ δ᾿ ἐξ ὑπαρχῆς εὑρισκόμενα μικρὰν τὸ πρῶτον ἐπίδοσιν λαμβάνειν εἴωθε, χρησιμωτέραν μέντοι πολλῷ τῆς ὕστερον ἐκ τούτων αὐξήσεως.
For of all discoveries, those which, having been received from others, were previously labored upon in part, have made progress by those who received them later; but those discovered from the very beginning are accustomed to receive a small progress at first, which is, however, much more useful than the subsequent increase from them.
Μέγιστον γὰρ ἴσως ἀρχὴ παντός, ὥσπερ λέγεται· διὸ καὶ χαλεπώτατον· ὅσῳ γὰρ κράτιστον τῇ δυνάμει, τοσούτῳ μικρότατον ὂν τῷ μεγέθει χαλεπώτατόν ἐστιν ὀφθῆναι.
For the beginning is perhaps the greatest part of everything, as is said; wherefore it is also the most difficult; for by as much as it is most powerful in its potential, by so much, being smallest in size, is it most difficult to be seen.
Ταύτης δ᾿ εὑρημένης ῥᾷον τὸ προστιθέναι καὶ συναύξειν τὸ λοιπόν ἐστιν· ὅπερ καὶ περὶ τοὺς ῥητορικοὺς λόγους συμβέβηκε, σχεδὸν δὲ καὶ περὶ τὰς ἄλλας πάσας τέχνας.
But when this is found, it is easier to add to it and to increase the rest; which is indeed what has happened regarding rhetorical arguments, and practically also regarding all other arts.
Οἱ μὲν γὰρ τὰς ἀρχὰς εὑρόντες παντελῶς ἐπὶ μικρόν τι προήγαγον· οἱ δὲ νῦν εὐδοκιμοῦντες παραλαβόντες παρὰ πολλῶν οἷον ἐκ διαδοχῆς κατὰ μέρος προαγαγόντων οὕτως ηὐξήκασι, Τισίας μὲν μετὰ τοὺς πρώτους, Θρασύμαχος δὲ μετὰ Τισίαν, Θεόδωρος δὲ μετὰ τοῦτον, καὶ πολλοὶ πολλὰ συνενηνόχασι μέρη· διόπερ οὐδὲν θαυμαστὸν ἔχειν τι πλῆθος τὴν τέχνην.
For those who found the beginnings advanced them to a completely small extent; but those who are now celebrated, receiving them from many who, as if in succession, advanced them in part, have increased them in this way—Tisias after the first founders, Thrasymachus after Tisias, Theodorus after him, and many have contributed many parts; wherefore it is no wonder that the art has a certain abundance.
Ταύτης δὲ τῆς πραγματείας οὐ τὸ μὲν ἦν τὸ δ᾿ οὐκ ἦν προεξειργασμένον, ἀλλ᾿ οὐδὲν παντελῶς ὑπῆρχεν.
But of this study, it was not the case that one part had been previously worked out and another had not, but absolutely nothing existed.
Καὶ γὰρ τῶν περὶ τοὺς ἐριστικοὺς λόγους μισθαρνούντων ὁμοία τις ἦν ἡ παίδευσις τῇ Γοργίου πραγματείᾳ.
For indeed, the education of those who took pay for contentious arguments was similar to the practice of Gorgias.
Λόγους γὰρ οἱ μὲν ῥητορικοὺς οἱ δὲ ἐρωτητικοὺς ἐδίδοσαν ἐκμανθάνειν, εἰς οὓς πλειστάκις ἐμπίπτειν ᾠήθησαν ἑκάτεροι τοὺς ἀλλήλων λόγους.
For some gave rhetorical arguments, others questioning ones, to be learned by heart, into which each party thought the other's arguments would most frequently fall.
Διόπερ ταχεῖα μὲν ἄτεχνος δ᾿ ἦν ἡ διδασκαλία τοῖς μανθάνουσι παρ᾿ αὐτῶν· οὐ γὰρ τέχνην ἀλλὰ τὰ ἀπὸ τῆς τέχνης διδόντες παιδεύειν ὑπελάμβανον, ὥσπερ ἂν εἴ τις ἐπιστήμην φάσκων παραδώσειν ἐπὶ τὸ μηδὲν πονεῖν τοὺς πόδας, εἶτα σκυτοτομικὴν μὲν μὴ διδάσκοι, μηδ᾿ ὅθεν δυνήσεται πορίζεσθαι τὰ τοιαῦτα, δοίη δὲ πολλὰ γένη παντοδαπῶν ὑποδημάτων· οὗτος γὰρ βεβοήθηκε μὲν πρὸς τὴν χρείαν, τέχνην δ᾿ οὐ παρέδωκεν.
Wherefore the instruction for those who learned from them was rapid but without art; for they supposed they were educating not by giving the art, but what comes from the art, just as if someone, claiming that he would impart knowledge for feet not to suffer at all, then did not teach shoemaking, nor from where one will be able to procure such things, but gave many kinds of all sorts of shoes; for this person has helped indeed for the practical need, but has not imparted an art.
Καὶ περὶ μὲν τῶν ῥητορικῶν ὑπῆρχε πολλὰ καὶ παλαιὰ τὰ λεγόμενα, περὶ δὲ τοῦ συλλογίζεσθαι παντελῶς οὐδὲν εἴχομεν πρότερον ἄλλο λέγειν, ἀλλ᾿ ἢ τριβῇ ζητοῦντες πολὺν χρόνον ἐπονοῦμεν.
And concerning rhetorical subjects there were many and ancient things said, but concerning reasoning we had absolutely nothing else to say before, but we labored for a long time seeking by practice.
Εἰ δὲ φαίνεται θεασαμένοις ὑμῖν ὡς ἐκ τοιούτων ἐξ ἀρχῆς ὑπαρχόντων ἔχειν ἡ μέθοδος ἱκανῶς παρὰ τὰς ἄλλας πραγματείας τὰς ἐκ παραδόσεως ηὐξημένας, λοιπὸν ἂν εἴη πάντων ὑμῶν ἢ τῶν ἠκροαμένων ἔργον τοῖς μὲν παραλελειμμένοις τῆς μεθόδου συγγνώμην τοῖς δ᾿ εὑρημένοις πολλὴν ἔχειν χάριν.
If, then, it seems to you who have examined it that our method, starting from such beginnings, is in a satisfactory state compared with the other studies that have been increased by tradition, what remains would be the task for all of you or those who have listened to be indulgent to what has been omitted in the method, and to have great gratitude for what has been discovered.