§12Καὶ περὶ μὲν τῶν ἐλέγχων εἴρηται τῶν φαινομένων· περὶ δὲ τοῦ ψευδόμενόν τι δεῖξαι καὶ τὸν λόγον εἰς ἄδοξον ἀγαγεῖν (τοῦτο γὰρ ἦν δεύτερον τῆς σοφιστικῆς προαιρέσεως) πρῶτον μὲν οὖν ἐκ τοῦ πυνθάνεσθαί πως καὶ διὰ τῆς ἐρωτήσεως συμβαίνει μάλιστα.
Now concerning apparent refutations we have spoken; but concerning showing that someone is telling a falsehood and bringing the argument to a paradox (for this was the second aim of sophistical activity), in the first place, then, it occurs most of all from asking questions in a certain way and through the process of interrogation.
Τὸ γὰρ πρὸς μηδὲν ὁρίσαντα κείμενον ἐρωτᾶν θηρευτικόν ἐστι τούτων· εἰκῇ γὰρ λέγοντες ἁμαρτάνουσι μᾶλλον· εἰκῇ δὲ λέγουσιν, ὅταν μηδὲν ἔχωσι προκείμενον.
For to ask questions without having defined any thesis laid down is a hunting-ground for these; for in speaking at random people make more mistakes, and they speak at random when they have no proposed subject.
Τό τε ἐρωτᾶν πολλά, κἂν ὡρισμένον ᾖ πρὸς ὃ διαλέγεται, καὶ τὸ τὰ δοκοῦντα λέγειν ἀξιοῦν ποιεῖ τιν᾿ εὐπορίαν τοῦ εἰς ἄδοξον ἀγαγεῖν ἢ ψεῦδος· ἐάν τε ἐρωτώμενος φῇ ἢ ἀποφῇ τούτων τι, ἄγειν πρὸς ἃ ἐπιχειρήματος εὐπορεῖ.
And asking many questions, even if the target of the discussion is defined, and demanding that they state what seems to be the case, produces some facility for leading into a paradox or a falsehood; and whether the one questioned affirms or denies any of these, you lead him to the points for which you have a wealth of arguments.
Δυνατὸν δὲ νῦν ἧττον κακουργεῖν διὰ τούτων ἢ πρότερον· ἀπαιτοῦνται γὰρ τί τοῦτο πρὸς τὸ ἐν ἀρχῇ. Στοιχεῖον δὲ τοῦ τυχεῖν ἢ ψεύδους τινὸς ἢ ἀδόξου τὸ μηδεμίαν εὐθὺς ἐρωτᾶν θέσιν, ἀλλὰ φάσκειν ἐρωτᾶν μαθεῖν βουλόμενον· χώραν γὰρ ἐπιχειρήματος ἡ σκέψις ποιεῖ.
It is, however, less possible to play tricks through these means nowadays than formerly; for people demand "what has this to do with the original question?" And an element for obtaining either some falsehood or a paradox is to ask no thesis directly at first, but to claim that one is asking because of a desire to learn; for the process of inquiry makes a space for argument.
Πρὸς δὲ τὸ ψευδόμενον δεῖξαι ἴδιος τόπος ὁ σοφιστικός, τὸ ἄγειν πρὸς τοιαῦτα πρὸς ἃ εὐπορεῖ λόγων· ἔσται δὲ καὶ καλῶς καὶ μὴ καλῶς τοῦτο ποιεῖν, καθάπερ ἐλέχθη πρότερον.
For showing that someone is telling a falsehood, the sophistical locus proper is to lead the discussion to such things as those on which one has a wealth of arguments; and it is possible to do this both well and not well, just as was said before.
Πάλιν πρὸς τὸ παράδοξα λέγειν σκοπεῖν ἐκ τίνος γένους ὁ διαλεγόμενος, εἶτ᾿ ἐπερωτᾶν ὃ τοῖς πολλοῖς οὗτοι λέγουσι παράδοξον· ἔστι γὰρ ἑκάστοις τι τοιοῦτον.
Again, for making people say paradoxes, one must observe from what school the person discussing is, and then ask what those people say that is a paradox to the many; for each school has something of this sort.
Στοιχεῖον δὲ τούτων τὸ τὰς ἑκάστων εἰληφέναι θέσεις ἐν ταῖς προτάσεσιν.
And the element of these is to have grasped the theses of each in one's premises.
Λύσις δὲ καὶ τούτων ἡ προσήκουσα φέρεται τὸ ἐμφανίζειν ὅτι οὐ διὰ τὸν λόγον συμβαίνει τὸ ἄδοξον· ἀεὶ δὲ τοῦτο καὶ βούλεται ὁ ἀγωνιζόμενος.
And the appropriate solution brought forward for these is to show that the paradox does not occur because of the argument; and this is always what the combatant wants.
Ἔτι δ᾿ ἐκ τῶν βουλήσεων καὶ τῶν φανερῶν δοξῶν.
Further, from people's wishes and their apparent opinions.
Οὐ γὰρ ταὐτὰ βούλονταί τε καὶ φασίν, ἀλλὰ λέγουσι μὲν τοὺς εὐσχημονεστάτους τῶν λόγων, βούλονται δὲ τὰ φαινόμενα λυσιτελεῖν, οἷον τεθνάναι καλῶς μᾶλλον ἢ ζῆν ἡδέως φασὶ δεῖν καὶ πένεσθαι δικαίως μᾶλλον ἢ πλουτεῖν αἰσχρῶς, βούλονται δὲ τἀναντία.
For they do not wish and say the same things, but they speak the most respectable arguments, while they wish for things that seem to be advantageous. For example, they say that one ought to die nobly rather than live pleasantly, and to be poor justly rather than to be rich disgracefully, but they wish for the opposite.
Τὸν μὲν οὖν λέγοντα κατὰ τὰς βουλήσεις εἰς τὰς φανερὰς δόξας ἀκτέον, τὸν δὲ κατὰ ταύτας εἰς τὰς ἀποκεκρυμμένας· ἀμφοτέρως γὰρ ἀναγκαῖον παράδοξα λέγειν· ἢ γὰρ πρὸς τὰς φανερὰς ἢ πρὸς τὰς ἀφανεῖς δόξας ἐροῦσιν ἐναντία.
Therefore, the person who speaks according to his wishes must be led to his apparent opinions, and the person who speaks according to these must be led to his hidden wishes; for in both ways they are forced to speak paradoxes; for they will say what is contrary either to their apparent or to their hidden opinions.
Πλεῖστος δὲ τόπος ἐστὶ τοῦ ποιεῖν παράδοξα λέγειν, ὥσπερ καὶ ὁ Καλλικλῆς ἐν τῷ Γοργίᾳ γέγραπται λέγων, καὶ οἱ ἀρχαῖοι δὲ πάντες ᾤοντο συμβαίνειν, παρὰ τὸ κατὰ φύσιν καὶ κατὰ τὸν νόμον· ἐναντία γὰρ εἶναι φύσιν καὶ νόμον, καὶ τὴν δικαιοσύνην κατὰ νόμον μὲν εἶναι καλὸν κατὰ φύσιν δ᾿ οὐ καλόν.
But the greatest locus for making people speak paradoxes, just as Callicles too is written as saying in the *Gorgias*, and all the ancients as well thought it turned out, is from the contrast between nature and law; for nature and law are contrary, and justice is noble according to law, but not noble according to nature.
Δεῖν οὖν πρὸς μὲν τὸν εἰπόντα κατὰ φύσιν κατὰ νόμον ἀπαντᾶν, πρὸς δὲ τὸν κατὰ νόμον ἐπὶ τὴν φύσιν ἄγειν· ἀμφοτέρως γὰρ εἶναι λέγειν παράδοξα.
One must therefore meet the person who speaks according to nature by replying according to law, and lead the person who speaks according to law to nature; for in both ways it is possible to make them speak paradoxes.
Ἦν δὲ τὸ μὲν κατὰ φύσιν αὐτοῖς τὸ ἀληθές, τὸ δὲ κατὰ νόμον τὸ τοῖς πολλοῖς δοκοῦν.
Now for them, what is according to nature was the truth, while what is according to law was what seems so to the many.
Ὥστε δῆλον ὅτι κἀκεῖνοι, καθάπερ καὶ οἱ νῦν, ἢ ἐλέγξαι ἢ παράδοξα λέγειν τὸν ἀποκρινόμενον ἐπεχείρουν ποιεῖν.
So it is clear that they too, just like those of the present day, attempted either to refute the respondent or to make him speak paradoxes.
Ἔνια δὲ τῶν ἐρωτημάτων ἔχει ἀμφοτέρως ἄδοξον εἶναι τὴν ἀπόκρισιν, οἷον πότερον τοῖς σοφοῖς ἢ τῷ πατρὶ δεῖ πείθεσθαι, καὶ τὰ συμφέροντα πράττειν ἢ τὰ δίκαια, καὶ ἀδικεῖσθαι αἱρετώτερον ἢ βλάπτειν.
But some of the questions have the result that the answer is a paradox in both ways, as for instance whether one ought to obey the wise or one's father, and whether one ought to do what is advantageous or what is just, and whether it is more choiceworthy to suffer injustice or to do harm.
Δεῖ δ᾿ ἄγειν εἰς τὰ τοῖς πολλοῖς καὶ τοῖς σοφοῖς ἐναντία, ἐὰν μὲν λέγῃ τις ὡς οἱ περὶ τοὺς λόγους, εἰς τὰ τοῖς πολλοῖς, ἐὰν δ᾿ ὡς οἱ πολλοί, ἐπὶ τὰ τοῖς ἐν λόγῳ.
And one must lead them to what is contrary to the many and to the wise; if anyone speaks like the men of arguments, he must be led to the opinion of the many, but if he speaks like the many, to the opinion of those in arguments.
Φασὶ γὰρ οἱ μὲν ἐξ ἀνάγκης τὸν εὐδαίμονα δίκαιον εἶναι· τοῖς δὲ πολλοῖς ἄδοξον τὸ βασιλέα μὴ εὐδαιμονεῖν.
For the former say that the happy man is of necessity just, but to the many it is a paradox that a king is not happy.
Ἔστι δὲ τὸ εἰς τὰ οὕτως ἄδοξα συνάγειν τὸ αὐτὸ τῷ εἰς τὴν κατὰ φύσιν καὶ κατὰ νόμον ὑπεναντίωσιν ἄγειν· ὁ μὲν γὰρ νόμος δόξα τῶν πολλῶν, οἱ δὲ σοφοὶ κατὰ φύσιν καὶ κατ᾿ ἀλήθειαν λέγουσιν.
And to lead to conclusions that are in this way paradoxical is the same as leading to the opposition between nature and law; for law is the opinion of the many, but the wise speak according to nature and according to truth.