§2.20.1λοιπὸν δὲ περὶ τῶν κοινῶν πίστεων ἅπασιν εἰπεῖν, ἐπείπερ εἴρηται περὶ τῶν ἰδίων.
It remains to speak concerning the proofs common to all, since those specific to each class of speech have been discussed.
εἰσὶ δʼ αἱ κοιναὶ πίστεις δύο τῷ γένει, παράδειγμα καὶ ἐνθύμημα· ἡ γὰρ γνώμη μέρος ἐνθυμήματός ἐστιν.
The common proofs are two in genus, example and enthymeme; for maxim is a part of enthymeme.
§2.20.2πρῶτον μὲν οὖν περὶ παραδείγματος λέγωμεν· ὅμοιον γὰρ ἐπαγωγῇ τὸ παράδειγμα, ἡ δʼ ἐπαγωγὴ ἀρχή.
First, then, let us speak concerning example; for example is similar to induction, and induction is a starting point.
παραδειγμάτων δὲ εἴδη δύο· ἓν μὲν γάρ ἐστιν παραδείγματος εἶδος τὸ λέγειν πράγματα προγενομένα, ἓν δὲ τὸ αὐτὸν ποιεῖν.
There are two species of examples: for one species of example is to speak of things that have happened before, and another is to make them up oneself.
τούτου δὲ ἓν μὲν παραβολὴ ἓν δὲ λόγοι, §2.20.3οἷον οἱ Αἰσώπειοι καὶ Λιβυκοί.
Of the latter, one is comparison, and the other is fables, such as those of Aesop and the Libyan ones.
ἔστιν δὲ τὸ μὲν πράγματα λέγειν τοιόνδε τι, ὥσπερ εἴ τις λέγοι ὅτι δεῖ πρὸς βασιλέα παρασκευάζεσθαι καὶ μὴ ἐᾶν Αἴγυπτον χειρώσασθαι· καὶ γὰρ πρότερον Δαρεῖος οὐ πρότερον διέβη πρὶν Αἴγυπτον ἔλαβεν, λαβὼν δὲ διέβη, καὶ πάλιν Ξέρξης οὐ πρότερον ἐπεχείρησεν πρὶν ἔλαβεν, λαβὼν δὲ διέβη, ὥστε καὶ οὗτος ἐὰν λάβῃ, διαβήσεται, διὸ οὐκ ἐπιτρεπτέον.
Speaking of things that have happened is something like this: as if one were to say that it is necessary to make preparations against the King and not to allow him to subdue Egypt; for previously Darius did not cross over until he took Egypt, but having taken it he crossed; and again, Xerxes did not make an attempt until he took [it], but having taken [it] he crossed; so that this one also, if he takes [it], will cross over, wherefore it must not be permitted.
§2.20.4παραβολὴ δὲ τὰ Σωκρατικά, οἷον εἴ τις λέγοι ὅτι οὐ δεῖ κληρωτοὺς ἄρχειν· ὅμοιον γὰρ ὥσπερ ἂν εἴ τις τοὺς ἀθλητὰς κληροίη μὴ οἳ δύνανται ἀγωνίζεσθαι ἀλλʼ οἳ ἂν λάχωσιν, ἢ τῶν πλωτήρων ὅντινα δεῖ κυβερνᾶν κληρώσειεν, ὡς δέον τὸν λαχόντα ἀλλὰ μὴ τὸν ἐπιστάμενον.
Comparison consists of the Socratic arguments; for instance, if one should say that those chosen by lot ought not to rule; for it is similar to as if one were to choose athletes by lot, not those who are able to compete, but those who happen to win the draw; or if one were to choose by lot which of the sailors ought to act as pilot, as if the one who wins the draw ought to do so, and not the one who knows how.
§2.20.5λόγος δέ, οἷος ὁ Στησιχόρου περὶ Φαλάριδος καὶ ὁ Αἰσώπου ὑπὲρ τοῦ δημαγωγοῦ.
A fable is such as that of Stesichorus concerning Phalaris, and that of Aesop on behalf of the demagogue.
Στησίχορος μὲν γὰρ ἑλομένων στρατηγὸν αὐτοκράτορα τῶν Ἱμεραίων Φάλαριν καὶ μελλόντων φυλακὴν διδόναι τοῦ σώματος, τἆλλα διαλεχθεὶς εἶπεν αὐτοῖς λόγον ὡς ἵππος κατεῖχε λειμῶνα μόνος, ἐλθόντος δʼ ἐλάφου καὶ διαφθείροντος τὴν νομὴν βουλόμενος τιμωρήσασθαι τὸν ἔλαφον ἠρώτα τινὰ ἄνθρωπον εἰ δύναιτʼ ἂν μετʼ αὐτοῦ τιμωρήσασθαι τὸν ἔλαφον, ὁ δʼ ἔφησεν, ἐὰν λάβῃ χαλινὸν καὶ αὐτὸς ἀναβῇ ἐπʼ αὐτὸν ἔχων ἀκόντια· συνομολογήσας δὲ καὶ ἀναβάντος ἀντὶ τοῦ τιμωρήσασθαι αὐτὸς ἐδούλευσε τῷ ἀνθρώπῳ.
For when the Himeraeans had chosen Phalaris as general with absolute power and were about to give him a bodyguard, Stesichorus, having spoken on other matters, told them a fable: that a horse held a meadow alone, but when a stag came and ruined the pasture, wishing to punish the stag, he asked a certain man if he could punish the stag with him; and the man said he could, if the horse would take a bit and the man himself could mount upon him holding javelins; and having agreed and the man having mounted, instead of getting revenge, the horse itself became a slave to the man.
οὕτω δὲ καὶ ὑμεῖς
, ἔφη,
ὁρᾶτε μὴ βουλόμενοι τοὺς πολεμίους τιμωρήσασθαι τὸ αὐτὸ πάθητε τῷ ἵππῳ· τὸν μὲν γὰρ χαλινὸν ἔχετε ἤδη, ἑλόμενοι στρατηγὸν αὐτοκράτορα· ἑὰν δὲ φυλακὴν δῶτε καὶ ἀναβῆναι ἐάσητε, δουλεύσετε ἤδη Φαλάριδι
. §2.20.6Αἴσωπος δὲ ἐν Σάμῳ δημηγορῶν κρινομένου δημαγωγοῦ περὶ θανάτου ἔφη ἀλώπεκα διαβαίνουσαν ποταμὸν ἀπωσθῆναι εἰς φάραγγα, οὐ δυναμένην δὲ ἐκβῆναι πολὺν χρόνον κακοπαθεῖν καὶ κυνοραιστὰς πολλοὺς ἔχεσθαι αὐτῆς, ἐχῖνον δὲ πλανώμενον, ὡς εἶδεν αὐτήν, κατοικτείραντα ἐρωτᾶν εἰ ἀφέλοι αὐτῆς τοὺς κυνοραιστάς, τὴν δὲ οὐκ ἐᾶν· ἐρομένου δὲ διὰ τί,
ὅτι οὗτοι μὲν
φάναι
ἤδη μου πλήρεις εἰσὶ καὶ ὀλίγον ἕλκουσιν αἷμα, ἐὰν δὲ τούτους ἀφέλητε, ἕτεροι ἐλθόντες πεινῶντες ἐκπιοῦνταί μου τὸ λοιπὸν αἷμα
. ἀτὰρ καὶ ὑμᾶς, ἄνδρες Σάμιοι, οὗτος μὲν οὐδὲν ἔτι βλάψει (πλούσιος γάρ ἐστιν), ἐὰν δὲ τοῦτον ἀποκτείνητε, ἕτεροι ἥξουσι πένητες, οἳ ὑμᾶς ἀναλώσουσι τὰ λοιπὰ κλέπτοντες. §2.20.7εἰσὶ δʼ οἱ λόγοι δημηγορικοί, καὶ ἔχουσιν ἀγαθὸν τοῦτο, ὅτι πράγματα μὲν εὑρεῖν ὅμοια γεγενημένα χαλεπόν, λόγους δὲ ῥᾷον· ποιῆσαι γὰρ δεῖ ὥσπερ καὶ παραβολάς, ἄν τις δύνηται τὸ ὅμοιον ὁρᾶν, ὅπερ ῥᾷόν ἐστιν ἐκ φιλοσοφίας.
"So also you," he said, "watch out lest, wishing to punish your enemies, you suffer the same thing as the horse; for you already have the bit, having chosen a general with absolute power; and if you give him a bodyguard and allow him to mount, you will already be slaves to Phalaris." And Aesop, speaking in Samos when a demagogue was being tried for his life, said that a fox, while crossing a river, was swept into a cleft, and not being able to get out, suffered for a long time, and many dog-ticks clung to her; and a wandering hedgehog, when he saw her, took pity and asked if he should remove the dog-ticks from her, but she would not allow it; and when he asked why, she said: "Because these are already full of me and draw little blood, but if you remove these, others will come hungry and drink up the rest of my blood." "So also with you, men of Samos, this man will no longer harm you (for he is rich), but if you kill him, others will come who are poor, who will consume you by stealing what remains." Fables are suitable for public speaking, and they have this good aspect, that while it is difficult to find similar things that have actually happened, it is easier to find fables; for one must make them just as one does comparisons, if one is able to see similarity, which is easier from philosophy.
§2.20.8ῥᾴω μὲν οὖν πορίσασθαι τὰ διὰ τῶν λόγων, χρησιμώτερα δὲ πρὸς τὸ βουλεύσασθαι τὰ διὰ τῶν πραγμάτων· ὅμοια γὰρ ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολὺ τὰ μέλλοντα τοῖς γεγονόσιν.
While, therefore, those through fables are easier to provide, those through actual events are more useful for deliberation; for things about to be are, for the most part, similar to things that have happened.
§2.20.9δεῖ δὲ χρῆσθαι τοῖς παραδείγμασι οὐκ ἔχοντα μὲν ἐνθυμήματα ὡς ἀποδείξεσιν (ἡ γὰρ πίστις διὰ τούτων), ἔχοντα δὲ ὡς μαρτυρίοις, ἐπιλόγῳ χρώμενον τοῖς ἐνθυμήμασιν· προτιθέμενα μὲν γὰρ ἔοικεν ἐπαγωγῇ, τοῖς δὲ ῥητορικοῖς οὐκ οἰκεῖον ἐπαγωγὴ πλὴν ἐν ὀλίγοις, ἐπιλεγόμενα δὲ μαρτυρίοις, ὁ δὲ μάρτυς πανταχοῦ πιθανός· διὸ καὶ προτιθέντι μὲν ἀνάγκη πολλὰ λέγειν, ἐπιλέγοντι δὲ καὶ ἓν ἱκανόν· μάρτυς γὰρ χρηστὸς καὶ εἷς χρήσιμος.
And one should use examples, when not possessing enthymemes, as demonstrations (for conviction is produced through these), but when possessing them, as testimonies, using them as an epilogue to the enthymemes; for when placed first, they resemble induction, and induction is not suitable for rhetorical speeches except in a few cases; but when placed after, they resemble testimonies, and a witness is everywhere persuasive; wherefore also for one placing them first it is necessary to state many, but for one placing them after, even one is sufficient; for a good witness, even single, is useful.
πόσα μὲν οὖν εἴδη παραδειγμάτων, καὶ πῶς αὐτοῖς καὶ πότε χρηστέον, εἴρηται.
How many species of examples there are, then, and how and when they are to be used, has been said.