§7.1τὸ ὂν λέγεται πολλαχῶς, καθάπερ διειλόμεθα πρότερον ἐν τοῖς περὶ τοῦ ποσαχῶς·
Being is spoken of in many ways, just as we distinguished previously in our discussion on the various senses of words.
σημαίνει γὰρ τὸ μὲν τί ἐστι καὶ τόδε τι, τὸ δὲ ποιὸν ἢ ποσὸν ἢ τῶν ἄλλων ἕκαστον τῶν οὕτω κατηγορουμένων.
For it signifies, on the one hand, "what a thing is" and "a 'this'", and on the other, quality or quantity or each of the other things that are thus predicated.
τοσαυταχῶς δὲ λεγομένου τοῦ ὄντος φανερὸν ὅτι τούτων πρῶτον ὂν τὸ τί ἐστιν, ὅπερ σημαίνει τὴν οὐσίαν (ὅταν μὲν γὰρ εἴπωμεν ποῖόν τι τόδε, ἢ ἀγαθὸν λέγομεν ἢ κακόν, ἀλλʼ οὐ τρίπηχυ ἢ ἄνθρωπον·
But since being is spoken of in so many ways, it is clear that of these, the primary being is "what a thing is," which signifies substance. (For when we say what quality this thing has, we say that it is good or bad, but not that it is three cubits long or a man; but when we say what it is, we do not say that it is white or hot or three cubits long, but a man or a god).
ὅταν δὲ τί ἐστιν, οὐ λευκὸν οὐδὲ θερμὸν οὐδὲ τρίπηχυ, ἀλλὰ ἄνθρωπον ἢ θεόν), τὰ δʼ ἄλλα λέγεται ὄντα τῷ τοῦ οὕτως ὄντος τὰ μὲν ποσότητες εἶναι, τὰ δὲ ποιότητες, τὰ δὲ πάθη, τὰ δὲ ἄλλο τι.
And the other things are said to be by virtue of being quantities or qualities or affections or something else of being in this sense.
διὸ κἂν ἀπορήσειέ τις πότερον τὸ βαδίζειν καὶ τὸ ὑγιαίνειν καὶ τὸ καθῆσθαι ἕκαστον αὐτῶν ὂν σημαίνει, ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὁτουοῦν τῶν τοιούτων·
Therefore, one might even raise the question whether walking, being healthy, and sitting signify each of them a being, and similarly with any other such things.
οὐδὲν γὰρ αὐτῶν ἐστὶν οὔτε καθʼ αὑτὸ πεφυκὸς οὔτε χωρίζεσθαι δυνατὸν τῆς οὐσίας, ἀλλὰ μᾶλλον, εἴπερ, τὸ βαδίζον τῶν ὄντων καὶ τὸ καθήμενον καὶ τὸ ὑγιαῖνον.
For none of them is either by nature independent or capable of being separated from substance, but rather, if anything, it is that which walks, sits, or is healthy that is among beings.
ταῦτα δὲ μᾶλλον φαίνεται ὄντα, διότι ἔστι τι τὸ ὑποκείμενον αὐτοῖς ὡρισμένον (τοῦτο δʼ ἐστὶν ἡ οὐσία καὶ τὸ καθʼ ἕκαστον), ὅπερ ἐμφαίνεται ἐν τῇ κατηγορίᾳ τῇ τοιαύτῃ· τὸ ἀγαθὸν γὰρ ἢ τὸ καθήμενον οὐκ ἄνευ τούτου λέγεται.
And these appear to be more truly beings because there is some definite underlying subject for them (and this is the substance and the individual), which is manifested in such a predication; for the good or the sitting is not spoken of without this.
δῆλον οὖν ὅτι διὰ ταύτην κἀκείνων ἕκαστον ἔστιν, ὥστε τὸ πρώτως ὂν καὶ οὐ τὶ ὂν ἀλλʼ ὂν ἁπλῶς ἡ οὐσία ἂν εἴη.
It is clear, then, that it is because of this substance that each of those things also is, so that that which is primarily—not being in some respect, but being simply—must be substance.
πολλαχῶς μὲν οὖν λέγεται τὸ πρῶτον· ὅμως δὲ πάντως ἡ οὐσία πρῶτον, καὶ λόγῳ καὶ γνώσει καὶ χρόνῳ.
Now "the primary" is spoken of in many ways; but nevertheless substance is primary in every way: in definition, in knowledge, and in time.
τῶν μὲν γὰρ ἄλλων κατηγορημάτων οὐθὲν χωριστόν, αὕτη δὲ μόνη·
For of the other predications none is separable, but this alone.
καὶ τῷ λόγῳ δὲ τοῦτο πρῶτον (ἀνάγκη γὰρ ἐν τῷ ἑκάστου λόγῳ τὸν τῆς οὐσίας ἐνυπάρχειν)·
And in definition also this is primary (for in the definition of each thing the definition of its substance must be present).
καὶ εἰδέναι δὲ τότʼ οἰόμεθα ἕκαστον μάλιστα, ὅταν τί ἐστιν ὁ ἄνθρωπος γνῶμεν ἢ τὸ πῦρ, μᾶλλον ἢ τὸ ποιὸν ἢ τὸ ποσὸν ἢ τὸ πού, ἐπεὶ καὶ αὐτῶν τούτων τότε ἕκαστον ἴσμεν, ὅταν τί ἐστι τὸ ποσὸν ἢ τὸ ποιὸν γνῶμεν.
And we think we know each thing most fully when we know what the man is or what the fire is, rather than its quality or quantity or place; since we know each of these latter things too only when we know what the quantity or the quality is.
καὶ δὴ καὶ τὸ πάλαι τε καὶ νῦν καὶ ἀεὶ ζητούμενον καὶ ἀεὶ ἀπορούμενον, τί τὸ ὄν, τοῦτό ἐστι τίς ἡ οὐσία (τοῦτο γὰρ οἱ μὲν ἓν εἶναί φασιν οἱ δὲ πλείω ἢ ἕν, καὶ οἱ μὲν πεπερασμένα οἱ δὲ ἄπειρα), διὸ καὶ ἡμῖν καὶ μάλιστα καὶ πρῶτον καὶ μόνον ὡς εἰπεῖν περὶ τοῦ οὕτως ὄντος θεωρητέον τί ἐστιν.
And indeed, the question that has been raised both long ago and now, and is always being raised and always causing difficulty—namely, "what is being?"—is this: "what is substance?" (For of this some say that it is one, others more than one, and some say that it is finite, others infinite). Therefore, for us too, and most especially and primarily and, so to speak, solely, we must consider concerning being in this sense, what it is.
§7.2δοκεῖ δʼ ἡ οὐσία ὑπάρχειν φανερώτατα μὲν τοῖς σώμασιν (διὸ τά τε ζῷα καὶ τὰ φυτὰ καὶ τὰ μόρια αὐτῶν οὐσίας εἶναί φαμεν, καὶ τὰ φυσικὰ σώματα, οἷον πῦρ καὶ ὕδωρ καὶ γῆν καὶ τῶν τοιούτων ἕκαστον, καὶ ὅσα ἢ μόρια τούτων ἢ ἐκ τούτων ἐστίν, ἢ μορίων ἢ πάντων, οἷον ὅ τε οὐρανὸς καὶ τὰ μόρια αὐτοῦ, ἄστρα καὶ σελήνη καὶ ἥλιος)·
Substance seems to belong most obviously to bodies (therefore, we say that animals and plants and their parts are substances, as well as natural bodies, such as fire, water, earth, and each of such things, and all things that are either parts of these or made of these, whether of some parts or of all of them, such as the heaven and its parts, the stars, the moon, and the sun).
πότερον δὲ αὗται μόναι οὐσίαι εἰσὶν ἢ καὶ ἄλλαι, ἢ τούτων τινὲς ἢ καὶ ἄλλαι, ἢ τούτων μὲν οὐθὲν ἕτεραι δέ τινες, σκεπτέον.
But whether these alone are substances or there are others besides, or some of these and some others, or none of these but certain other things, must be considered.
δοκεῖ δέ τισι τὰ τοῦ σώματος πέρατα, οἷον ἐπιφάνεια καὶ γραμμὴ καὶ στιγμὴ καὶ μονάς, εἶναι οὐσίαι, καὶ μᾶλλον ἢ τὸ σῶμα καὶ τὸ στερεόν.
And it seems to some that the limits of body, such as surface, line, point, and unit, are substances, and more so than body and the solid.
ἔτι παρὰ τὰ αἰσθητὰ οἱ μὲν οὐκ οἴονται εἶναι οὐδὲν τοιοῦτον, οἱ δὲ πλείω καὶ μᾶλλον ὄντα ἀΐδια, ὥσπερ Πλάτων τά τε εἴδη καὶ τὰ μαθηματικὰ δύο οὐσίας, τρίτην δὲ τὴν τῶν αἰσθητῶν σωμάτων οὐσίαν, Σπεύσιππος δὲ καὶ πλείους οὐσίας ἀπὸ τοῦ ἑνὸς ἀρξάμενος, καὶ ἀρχὰς ἑκάστης οὐσίας, ἄλλην μὲν ἀριθμῶν ἄλλην δὲ μεγεθῶν, ἔπειτα ψυχῆς· καὶ τοῦτον δὴ τὸν τρόπον ἐπεκτείνει τὰς οὐσίας.
Further, some think that besides sensible things there is no such substance, while others think there are more, and more truly existing eternal substances, as Plato held that the Forms and the mathematical objects are two kinds of substance, and a third is the substance of sensible bodies; while Speusippus assumed even more substances, beginning from the One, and principles for each substance, one for numbers, another for magnitudes, then for the soul; and in this way he extends the substances.
ἔνιοι δὲ τὰ μὲν εἴδη καὶ τοὺς ἀριθμοὺς τὴν αὐτὴν ἔχειν φασὶ φύσιν, τὰ δὲ ἄλλα ἐχόμενα, γραμμὰς καὶ ἐπίπεδα, μέχρι πρὸς τὴν τοῦ οὐρανοῦ οὐσίαν καὶ τὰ αἰσθητά.
Some, however, say that the Forms and the numbers have the same nature, and that other things follow in order—lines and planes—down to the substance of the heaven and the sensible things.
περὶ δὴ τούτων τί λέγεται καλῶς ἢ μὴ καλῶς, καὶ τίνες εἰσὶν οὐσίαι, καὶ πότερον εἰσί τινες παρὰ τὰς αἰσθητὰς ἢ οὐκ εἰσί, καὶ αὗται πῶς εἰσί, καὶ πότερον ἔστι τις χωριστὴ οὐσία, καὶ διὰ τί καὶ πῶς, ἢ οὐδεμία, παρὰ τὰς αἰσθητάς, σκεπτέον, ὑποτυπωσαμένοις τὴν οὐσίαν πρῶτον τί ἐστιν.
Concerning these, then, we must consider what is said well or not well, and what things are substances, and whether there are any substances besides the sensible ones or not, and how these exist, and whether there is any separable substance, and why and how, or none at all besides the sensible ones, after we have first sketched what substance is.