§1.6Γένη δὲ μέγιστα τῶν ζῴων, εἰς ἃ διῄρηται τἆλλα ζῷα, τάδ’ ἐστίν, ἓν μὲν ὀρνίθων, ἓν δ’ ἰχθύων, ἄλλο δὲ κήτους.
The greatest classes of animals, into which the other animals are divided, are the following: one of birds, one of fishes, and another of cetaceans.
Ταῦτα μὲν οὖν πάντα ἔναιμά ἐστιν.
Now, all of these are blooded.
Ἄλλο δὲ γένος ἐστὶ τὸ τῶν ὀστρακοδέρμων, ὃ καλεῖται ὄστρεον· ἄλλο τὸ τῶν μαλακοστράκων, ἀνώνυμον ἑνὶ ὀνόματι, οἷον κάραβοι καὶ γένη τινὰ καρκίνων καὶ ἀστακῶν· ἄλλο τὸ τῶν μαλακίων, οἷον τευθίδες τε καὶ τεῦθοι καὶ σηπίαι· ἕτερον τὸ τῶν ἐντόμων.
Another class is that of the testaceans, which is called "shellfish"; another is that of the crustaceans, which has no single collective name, such as the crawfish and certain classes of crabs and lobsters; another is that of the molluscs, such as the squids, the calamaries, and the cuttlefish; and another is that of the insects.
Ταῦτα δὲ πάντα μέν ἐστιν ἄναιμα, ὅσα δὲ πόδας ἔχει, πολύποδα· τῶν δ’ ἐντόμων ἔνια καὶ πτηνά ἐστιν.
All of these are bloodless, and such as have feet are multiped; and some of the insects are also flying creatures.
Τῶν δὲ λοιπῶν ζῴων οὐκέτι τὰ γένη μεγάλα· οὐ γὰρ περιέχει πολλὰ εἴδη ἓν εἶδος, ἀλλὰ τὸ μέν ἐστιν ἁπλοῦν αὐτὸ οὐκ ἔχον διαφορὰν τὸ εἶδος, οἷον ἄνθρωπος, τὰ δ’ ἔχει μέν, ἀλλ’ ἀνώνυμα τὰ εἴδη.
Of the remaining animals, the classes are no longer large; for one single species does not contain many sub-species, but either the species is simple in itself and has no difference, such as man, or it has differences, but the species are nameless.
Ἔστι γὰρ τὰ τετράποδα καὶ μὴ πτερωτὰ ἔναιμα μὲν πάντα, ἀλλὰ τὰ μὲν ζῳοτόκα τὰ δ’ ᾠοτόκα αὐτῶν.
For those that are four-footed and wingless are indeed all blooded, but some of them are viviparous and others oviparous.
Ὅσα μὲν οὖν ζῳοτόκα, οὐ πάντα τρίχας ἔχει, ὅσα δ’ ᾠοτόκα, φολίδας ἔχει· ἔστι δ’ ἡ φολὶς ὅμοιον χώρᾳ λεπίδος.
Now, of the viviparous ones, not all have hair, whereas the oviparous ones have horny scales; and the horny scale is analogous to the fish scale.
Ἄπουν δὲ φύσει ἐστὶν ἔναιμον πεζὸν τὸ τῶν ὄφεων γένος· ἔστι δὲ τοῦτο φολιδωτόν.
The class of snakes is by nature footless, blooded, and land-dwelling; and this class is covered with horny scales.
Ἀλλ’ οἱ μὲν ἄλλοι ᾠοτοκοῦσιν ὄφεις, ἡ δ’ ἔχιδνα μόνον ζῳοτοκεῖ.
But while other snakes are oviparous, the viper alone is viviparous.
Τὰ μὲν γὰρ ζῳοτοκοῦντα οὐ πάντα τρίχας ἔχει· καὶ γὰρ τῶν ἰχθύων τινὲς ζῳοτοκοῦσιν· ὅσα μέντοι ἔχει τρίχας, πάντα ζῳοτοκεῖ.
For not all viviparous creatures have hair; indeed, even some of the fishes are viviparous; however, all those that have hair are viviparous.
Τριχῶν γάρ τι εἶδος θετέον καὶ τὰς ἀκανθώδεις τρίχας, οἵας οἱ χερσαῖοι ἔχουσιν ἐχῖνοι καὶ οἱ ὕστριχες· τριχὸς γὰρ χρείαν παρέχουσιν, ἀλλ’ οὐ ποδῶν, ὥσπερ οἱ τῶν θαλαττίων.
For we must reckon as a kind of hair even the thorny spines, such as land-hedgehogs and porcupines have; for they serve the purpose of hair, but not of feet, as do the spines of sea-urchins.
Τοῦ δὲ γένους τοῦ τῶν τετραπόδων ζῴων καὶ ζῳοτόκων εἴδη μέν ἐστι πολλά, ἀνώνυμα δέ· ἀλλὰ καθ’ ἕκαστον αὐτῶν ὡς εἰπεῖν, ὥσπερ ἄνθρωπος εἴρηται, λέων, ἔλαφος, ἵππος, κύων καὶ τἆλλα τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον, ἐπεί ἐστιν ἕν τι γένος καὶ ἐπὶ τοῖς λοφούροις καλουμένοις, οἷον ἵππῳ καὶ ὄνῳ καὶ ὀρεῖ καὶ γίννῳ καὶ ἴννῳ καὶ ταῖς ἐν Συρίᾳ καλουμέναις ἡμιόνοις, αἳ καλοῦνται ἡμίονοι δι’ ὁμοιότητα, οὐκ οὖσαι ἁπλῶς τὸ αὐτὸ εἶδος· καὶ γὰρ ὀχεύονται καὶ γεννῶνται ἐξ ἀλλήλων.
Of the class of four-footed and viviparous animals, the species are indeed many, but nameless; rather, each of them is spoken of individually, so to speak, just as "man" is said, such as lion, deer, horse, dog, and others in this manner, since there is also a certain single class for the so-called bushy-tailed animals, such as the horse, the ass, the mule, the ginnus, the innus, and the so-called Syrian mules, which are called mules because of their similarity, though they are not simply the same species; for they also copulate and breed with one another.
Διὸ καὶ χωρὶς λαμβάνοντας ἀνάγκη θεωρεῖν ἑκάστου τὴν φύσιν αὐτῶν.
Therefore, it is necessary to take them separately and investigate the nature of each.
Ταῦτα μὲν οὖν τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον εἴρηται νῦν ὡς ἐν τύπῳ, γεύματος χάριν περὶ ὅσων καὶ ὅσα θεωρητέον· δι’ ἀκριβείας δ’ ὕστερον ἐροῦμεν, ἵνα πρῶτον τὰς ὑπαρχούσας διαφορὰς καὶ τὰ συμβεβηκότα πᾶσι λάβωμεν.
Now these things have been stated in this manner at present as an outline, for the sake of a foretaste of what subjects and how many must be investigated; we shall speak with precision later, in order that we may first grasp the existing differences and the attributes accidental to all.
Μετὰ δὲ τοῦτο τὰς αἰτίας τούτων πειρατέον εὑρεῖν.
And after this, we must try to find the causes of these.
Οὕτω γὰρ κατὰ φύσιν ἐστὶ ποιεῖσθαι τὴν μέθοδον, ὑπαρχούσης τῆς ἱστορίας τῆς περὶ ἕκαστον· περὶ ὧν τε γὰρ καὶ ἐξ ὧν εἶναι δεῖ τὴν ἀπόδειξιν, ἐκ τούτων γίνεται φανερόν.
For it is natural to conduct our method in this way, once the inquiry concerning each is established; for it becomes clear from these both what the subjects of demonstration must be, and from what premises it must proceed.
Ληπτέον δὲ πρῶτον τὰ μέρη τῶν ζῴων ἐξ ὧν συνέστηκεν.
First, then, we must grasp the parts of animals of which they are composed.
Κατὰ γὰρ ταῦτα μάλιστα καὶ πρῶτα διαφέρει καὶ τὰ ὅλα, ἢ τῷ τὰ μὲν ἔχειν τὰ δὲ μὴ ἔχειν, ἢ τῇ θέσει καὶ τῇ τάξει, ἢ καὶ κατὰ τὰς εἰρημένας πρότερον διαφοράς, εἴδει καὶ ὑπεροχῇ καὶ ἀναλογίᾳ καὶ τῶν παθημάτων ἐναντιότητι.
For it is in respect of these chiefly and first that even the wholes differ, either by some having them and others not, or by position and arrangement, or also according to the differences mentioned before—namely, in form, excess, analogy, and opposition of passive qualities.
Πρῶτον δὲ τὰ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου μέρη ληπτέον· ὥσπερ γὰρ τὰ νομίσματα πρὸς τὸ αὑτοῖς ἕκαστοι γνωριμώτατον δοκιμάζουσιν, οὕτω δὴ καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἄλλοις· ὁ δ’ ἄνθρωπος τῶν ζῴων γνωριμώτατον ἡμῖν ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἐστίν.
First, we must grasp the parts of man; for just as each people tests coins with reference to what is most familiar to themselves, so indeed it is in other matters too; and man is of necessity the most familiar to us among animals.
Τῇ μὲν οὖν αἰσθήσει οὐκ ἄδηλα τὰ μόρια· ὅμως δ’ ἕνεκεν τοῦ μὴ παραλιπεῖν τε τὸ ἐφεξῆς καὶ τοῦ λόγον ἔχειν μετὰ τῆς αἰσθήσεως, λεκτέον τὰ μέρη πρῶτον μὲν τὰ ὀργανικά, εἶτα τὰ ὁμοιομερῆ.
Now, to perception, these parts are not unclear; nevertheless, for the sake of not omitting the proper order, and of having a rational account along with perception, we must describe the parts: first, the organic parts, and then the uniform parts.