§1.13ἐπεὶ δʼ ἐστὶν ἡ εὐδαιμονία ψυχῆς ἐνέργειά τις κατʼ ἀρετὴν τελείαν, περὶ ἀρετῆς ἐπισκεπτέον ἂν εἴη·
Since happiness is a certain activity of soul in accordance with complete virtue, we must consider virtue; for perhaps in this way we might also better contemplate happiness.
τάχα γὰρ οὕτως ἂν βέλτιον καὶ περὶ τῆς εὐδαιμονίας θεωρήσαιμεν. δοκεῖ δὲ καὶ ὁ κατʼ ἀλήθειαν πολιτικὸς περὶ ταύτην μάλιστα πεπονῆσθαι· βούλεται γὰρ τοὺς πολίτας ἀγαθοὺς ποιεῖν καὶ τῶν νόμων ὑπηκόους.
It seems too that the true politician has labored most about this; for he wishes to make the citizens good and obedient to the laws.
παράδειγμα δὲ τούτων ἔχομεν τοὺς Κρητῶν καὶ Λακεδαιμονίων νομοθέτας, καὶ εἴ τινες ἕτεροι τοιοῦτοι γεγένηνται.
We have as examples of these the lawgivers of the Cretans and Lacedaemonians, and any others of this kind who have existed.
εἰ δὲ τῆς πολιτικῆς ἐστὶν ἡ σκέψις αὕτη, δῆλον ὅτι γίνοιτʼ ἂν ἡ ζήτησις κατὰ τὴν ἐξ ἀρχῆς προαίρεσιν.
And if this inquiry belongs to political science, it is clear that the investigation would proceed in accordance with our initial choice.
περὶ ἀρετῆς δὲ ἐπισκεπτέον ἀνθρωπίνης δῆλον ὅτι· καὶ γὰρ τἀγαθὸν ἀνθρώπινον ἐζητοῦμεν καὶ τὴν εὐδαιμονίαν ἀνθρωπίνην.
We must, of course, consider human virtue; for indeed it was human good and human happiness that we were seeking.
ἀρετὴν δὲ λέγομεν ἀνθρωπίνην οὐ τὴν τοῦ σώματος ἀλλὰ τὴν τῆς ψυχῆς· καὶ τὴν εὐδαιμονίαν δὲ ψυχῆς ἐνέργειαν λέγομεν.
By human virtue we mean not that of the body but that of the soul; and we call happiness an activity of soul.
εἰ δὲ ταῦθʼ οὕτως ἔχει, δῆλον ὅτι δεῖ τὸν πολιτικὸν εἰδέναι πως τὰ περὶ ψυχῆς, ὥσπερ καὶ τὸν ὀφθαλμοὺς θεραπεύσοντα καὶ πᾶν τὸ σῶμα, καὶ μᾶλλον ὅσῳ τιμιωτέρα καὶ βελτίων ἡ πολιτικὴ τῆς ἰατρικῆς· τῶν δʼ ἰατρῶν οἱ χαρίεντες πολλὰ πραγματεύονται περὶ τὴν τοῦ σώματος γνῶσιν.
If this is so, it is clear that the politician must know in some way the things concerning the soul, just as the one who is to treat the eyes and indeed the whole body, and even more so by as much as political science is more honorable and better than medicine; and the superior among physicians busy themselves much with the knowledge of the body.
θεωρητέον δὴ καὶ τῷ πολιτικῷ περὶ ψυχῆς, θεωρητέον δὲ τούτων χάριν, καὶ ἐφʼ ὅσον ἱκανῶς ἔχει πρὸς τὰ ζητούμενα· τὸ γὰρ ἐπὶ πλεῖον ἐξακριβοῦν ἐργωδέστερον ἴσως ἐστὶ τῶν προκειμένων.
So the politician too must contemplate the soul, but he must contemplate it for the sake of these things, and to the extent that is sufficient for what is sought; for to work it out with greater precision is perhaps more laborious than the tasks before us require.
λέγεται δὲ περὶ αὐτῆς καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἐξωτερικοῖς λόγοις ἀρκούντως ἔνια, καὶ χρηστέον αὐτοῖς· οἷον τὸ μὲν ἄλογον αὐτῆς εἶναι, τὸ δὲ λόγον ἔχον.
Some things are said about it adequately even in the exoteric discourses, and we must make use of them; for example, that one part of it is irrational, and the other possesses reason.
ταῦτα δὲ πότερον διώρισται καθάπερ τὰ τοῦ σώματος μόρια καὶ πᾶν τὸ μεριστόν, ἢ τῷ λόγῳ δύο ἐστὶν ἀχώριστα πεφυκότα καθάπερ ἐν τῇ περιφερείᾳ τὸ κυρτὸν καὶ τὸ κοῖλον, οὐθὲν διαφέρει πρὸς τὸ παρόν.
Whether these are divided like the parts of the body and everything that is divisible, or are two by definition but naturally inseparable, like the convex and the concave in a circumference, makes no difference for the present purpose.
τοῦ ἀλόγου δὲ τὸ μὲν ἔοικε κοινῷ καὶ φυτικῷ, λέγω δὲ τὸ αἴτιον τοῦ τρέφεσθαι καὶ αὔξεσθαι· τὴν τοιαύτην γὰρ δύναμιν τῆς ψυχῆς ἐν ἅπασι τοῖς τρεφομένοις θείη τις ἂν καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἐμβρύοις, τὴν αὐτὴν δὲ ταύτην καὶ ἐν τοῖς τελείοις· εὐλογώτερον γὰρ ἢ ἄλλην τινά.
Of the irrational, one part seems to be common and vegetative, by which I mean the cause of nutrition and growth; for one would posit such a capacity of the soul in all things that are nourished, even in embryos, and this same capacity also in complete beings; for this is more reasonable than to posit any other.
ταύτης μὲν οὖν κοινή τις ἀρετὴ καὶ οὐκ ἀνθρωπίνη φαίνεται· δοκεῖ γὰρ ἐν τοῖς ὕπνοις ἐνεργεῖν μάλιστα τὸ μόριον τοῦτο καὶ ἡ δύναμις αὕτη, ὁ δʼ ἀγαθὸς καὶ κακὸς ἥκιστα διάδηλοι καθʼ ὕπνον (ὅθεν φασὶν οὐδὲν διαφέρειν τὸ ἥμισυ τοῦ βίου τοὺς εὐδαίμονας τῶν ἀθλίων· συμβαίνει δὲ τοῦτο εἰκότως· ἀργία γάρ ἐστιν ὁ ὕπνος τῆς ψυχῆς ᾗ λέγεται σπουδαία καὶ φαύλη), πλὴν εἰ μὴ κατὰ μικρὸν καὶ διικνοῦνταί τινες τῶν κινήσεων, καὶ ταύτῃ βελτίω γίνεται τὰ φαντάσματα τῶν ἐπιεικῶν ἢ τῶν τυχόντων.
Of this part, then, the virtue appears to be common and not human; for this part and this capacity seem to active most during sleep, and the good and the bad are least distinguishable during sleep (whence they say that for half of life the happy differ nothing from the wretched; and this happens naturally, for sleep is an inactivity of the soul insofar as it is called serious or base), except if some movements do penetrate to a small degree, and in this way the dreams of the decent become better than those of ordinary people.
ἀλλὰ περὶ μὲν τούτων ἅλις, καὶ τὸ θρεπτικὸν ἐατέον, ἐπειδὴ τῆς ἀνθρωπικῆς ἀρετῆς ἄμοιρον πέφυκεν.
But enough of these things, and the nutritive part must be left aside, since it naturally has no share in human virtue.
ἔοικε δὲ καὶ ἄλλη τις φύσις τῆς ψυχῆς ἄλογος εἶναι, μετέχουσα μέντοι πῃ λόγου.
But there seems to be also another nature of the soul that is irrational, yet participating in a way in reason.
τοῦ γὰρ ἐγκρατοῦς καὶ ἀκρατοῦς τὸν λόγον καὶ τῆς ψυχῆς τὸ λόγον ἔχον ἐπαινοῦμεν· ὀρθῶς γὰρ καὶ ἐπὶ τὰ βέλτιστα παρακαλεῖ· φαίνεται δʼ ἐν αὐτοῖς καὶ ἄλλο τι παρὰ τὸν λόγον πεφυκός, ὃ μάχεται καὶ ἀντιτείνει τῷ λόγῳ.
For we praise the reason and the part of the soul possessing reason in the continent and the incontinent person; for it exhorts them rightly and toward the best things; but there appears in them also something else naturally distinct from reason, which fights and resists reason.
ἀτεχνῶς γὰρ καθάπερ τὰ παραλελυμένα τοῦ σώματος μόρια εἰς τὰ δεξιὰ προαιρουμένων κινῆσαι τοὐναντίον εἰς τὰ ἀριστερὰ παραφέρεται, καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς ψυχῆς οὕτως· ἐπὶ τἀναντία γὰρ αἱ ὁρμαὶ τῶν ἀκρατῶν.
For just as the paralyzed parts of the body, when we choose to move them to the right, are carried on the contrary to the left, so it is with the soul; for the impulses of the incontinent are toward the contrary directions.
ἀλλʼ ἐν τοῖς σώμασι μὲν ὁρῶμεν τὸ παραφερόμενον, ἐπὶ δὲ τῆς ψυχῆς οὐχ ὁρῶμεν.
But in bodies we see what is carried astray, whereas in the soul we do not see it.
ἴσως δʼ οὐδὲν ἧττον καὶ ἐν τῇ ψυχῇ νομιστέον εἶναί τι παρὰ τὸν λόγον, ἐναντιούμενον τούτῳ καὶ ἀντιβαῖνον.
Perhaps, however, we must nonetheless believe that there is in the soul something distinct from reason, opposing and resisting it.
πῶς δʼ ἕτερον, οὐδὲν διαφέρει.
In what way it is different makes no difference.
λόγου δὲ καὶ τοῦτο φαίνεται μετέχειν, ὥσπερ εἴπομεν· πειθαρχεῖ γοῦν τῷ λόγῳ τὸ τοῦ ἐγκρατοῦς—ἔτι δʼ ἴσως εὐηκοώτερόν ἐστι τὸ τοῦ σώφρονος καὶ ἀνδρείου· πάντα γὰρ ὁμοφωνεῖ τῷ λόγῳ.
But this part too appears to participate in reason, as we said; at any rate, that of the continent person obeys reason—and perhaps that of the temperate and brave person is still more obedient; for all things speak in unison with reason.
φαίνεται δὴ καὶ τὸ ἄλογον διττόν.
Thus, the irrational part also appears to be twofold.
τὸ μὲν γὰρ φυτικὸν οὐδαμῶς κοινωνεῖ λόγου, τὸ δʼ ἐπιθυμητικὸν καὶ ὅλως ὀρεκτικὸν μετέχει πως, ᾗ κατήκοόν ἐστιν αὐτοῦ καὶ πειθαρχικόν· οὕτω δὴ καὶ τοῦ πατρὸς καὶ τῶν φίλων φαμὲν ἔχειν λόγον, καὶ οὐχὥσπερ τῶν μαθηματικῶν.
For the vegetative part in no way shares in reason, but the appetitive and generally desiring part participates in a way, insofar as it is attentive and obedient to it; in this sense indeed we say we "have regard for" father and friends, and not in the manner of mathematical things.
ὅτι δὲ πείθεταί πως ὑπὸ λόγου τὸ ἄλογον, μηνύει καὶ ἡ νουθέτησις καὶ πᾶσα ἐπιτίμησίς τε καὶ παράκλησις.
That the irrational part is in some way persuaded by reason is indicated also by admonition and all criticism and encouragement.
εἰ δὲ χρὴ καὶ τοῦτο φάναι λόγον ἔχειν, διττὸν ἔσται καὶ τὸ λόγον ἔχον, τὸ μὲν κυρίως καὶ ἐν αὑτῷ, τὸ δʼ ὥσπερ τοῦ πατρὸς ἀκουστικόν τι.
And if we must say that this part also possesses reason, then the part possessing reason will also be twofold, one possessing it strictly and in itself, the other like one listening to a father.
διορίζεται δὲ καὶ ἡ ἀρετὴ κατὰ τὴν διαφορὰν ταύτην· λέγομεν γὰρ αὐτῶν τὰς μὲν διανοητικὰς τὰς δὲ ἠθικάς, σοφίαν μὲν καὶ σύνεσιν καὶ φρόνησιν διανοητικάς, ἐλευθεριότητα δὲ καὶ σωφροσύνην ἠθικάς.
Virtue also is defined according to this difference; for we call some of them intellectual and others moral, wisdom, comprehension, and prudence being intellectual, and liberality and temperance moral.
λέγοντες γὰρ περὶ τοῦ ἤθους οὐ λέγομεν ὅτι σοφὸς ἢ συνετὸς ἀλλʼ ὅτι πρᾶος ἢ σώφρων· ἐπαινοῦμεν δὲ καὶ τὸν σοφὸν κατὰ τὴν ἕξιν· τῶν ἕξεων δὲ τὰς ἐπαινετὰς ἀρετὰς λέγομεν.
For when speaking of character we do not say that someone is wise or understanding, but that he is gentle or temperate; yet we praise the wise person too according to his state, and those of the states that are praiseworthy we call virtues.