§5.10.48casus autem, qui et ipse praestat argumentis locum, sine dubio est ex insequentibus, sed quadam proprietate distinguitur, ut si dicam: melior dux Scipio quam Hannibal; vicit Hannibalem. bonus gubernator; nunquam fecit naufragium. bonus agricola; magnos sustulit fructus. et contra: sumptuosus fuit; patrimonium exhausit. turpiter vixit; omnibus invisus est. §5.10.49intuendae sunt praecipueque in coniecturis et facultates; credibilius est enim occisos a pluribus pauciores, a firmioribus imbecilliores, a vigilantibus dormientes, a praeparatis inopinantes; §5.10.50quorum contraria in diversum valent.
Moreover, 'consequence', which itself also supplies a place for arguments, is without doubt among the following things, but is distinguished by a certain propriety, as if I should say: 'Scipio is a better general than Hannibal; he defeated Hannibal.' 'A good helmsman; he never made shipwreck.' 'A good farmer; he gathered great crops.' And on the contrary: 'He was extravagant; he exhausted his inheritance.' 'He lived basely; he is hated by everyone.' Especially in conjectures, resources also must be observed; for it is more credible that the fewer were killed by the more, the weaker by the stronger, the sleeping by the vigilant, the unsuspecting by the prepared; The contraries of which have force in the opposite direction.
haec et in deliberando intuemur, et in iudiciis ad duas res solemus referre, an voluerit quis, an potuerit; nam et voluntatem spes facit.
These things we observe both in deliberating, and in judicial trials we are accustomed to refer them to two things, whether someone wished to, and whether he was able to; for hope also produces will.
hinc illa apud Ciceronem coniectura, insidiatus est Clodius Miloni, non Milo Clodio; ille cum servis robustis, hic cum mulierum comitatu, ille equis, hic in raeda, ille expeditus, hic paenula irretitus. §5.10.51facultati autem licet instrumentum coniungere; sunt enim in parte facultatis et copiae.
Hence that well-known conjecture in Cicero: 'Clodius lay in wait for Milo, not Milo for Clodius'; 'the former was with robust slaves, the latter with a company of women; the former on horseback, the latter in a carriage; the former unencumbered, the latter entangled in a cloak.' Moreover, to resources it is permitted to join 'instrument'; for supplies also are in the category of resources.
sed ex instrumento aliquando etiam signa nascuntur, ut spiculum in corpore inventum.
But from the instrument sometimes even signs arise, as a spearhead found in a body.
§5.10.52his adiicitur modus, quem τρόπον dicunt, quo quaeritur, quemadmodum quid sit factum.
To these is added 'method', which they call 'tropos', by which it is asked in what manner something was done.
idque tum ad qualitatem scriptumque pertinet, ut si negemus adulterum veneno licuisse occidere, tum ad coniecturas quoque, ut si dicam bona mente factum, ideo palam; mala, ideo ex insidiis, nocte, in solitudine.
And this pertains sometimes to quality and the letter of the law, as if we should deny that it was permitted to kill an adulterer by poison, sometimes also to conjectures, as if I should say it was done with a good mind, therefore openly; with a bad mind, therefore by ambush, at night, in solitude.
in rebus autem omnibus, §5.10.53de quarum vi ac natura quaeritur, quasque etiam citra complexum personarum ceterorumque ex quibus fit causa, per se intueri possumus, tria sine dubio rursus spectanda sunt, an sit, Quid sit, Quale sit.
Moreover, in all things, concerning whose force and nature it is inquired, and which we can observe by themselves, even without the connection of persons and other things from which a case is made, three things without doubt must again be observed: 'whether it is', 'what it is', 'of what quality it is'.
sed, quia sunt quidam loci argumentorum omnibus communes, dividi haec tria genera non possunt, ideoque locis potius, ut in quosque incurrent, subiicienda sunt.
But, because there are certain places of arguments common to all, these three kinds cannot be divided, and therefore they should rather be subjected to the places, as they occur in each.
§5.10.54ducuntur ergo argumenta ex finitione seu fine; nam utroque modo traditur.
Therefore, arguments are derived from 'definition' or 'boundary'; for it is handed down in both ways.
eius duplex ratio est; aut enim simpliciter quaeritur, sitne hoc virtus; aut praecedente finitione, quid sit virtus.
Of this there is a double method; for either it is simply asked whether this is virtue, or, with a definition preceding, what virtue is.
id aut universum verbis complectimur, ut rhetorice est bene dicendi scientia; aut per partes, ut rhetorice est inveniendi recte et disponendi et eloquendi cum, firma memoria et cum dignitate actionis scientia. §5.10.55praeterea finimus aut vi, sicut superiora, aut ἐτυμολογίᾳ, ut si assiduum ab asse dando, et locupletem a locorum, pecuniosum a pecorum copia.
This we embrace either as a whole in words, as 'rhetoric is the science of speaking well'; or by parts, as 'rhetoric is the science of finding rightly and arranging and expressing, with a firm memory and with dignity of delivery.' Besides, we define either by essence, like the former ones, or by etymology, as if 'assiduus' from giving an 'as', and 'locuples' from abundance of places, 'pecuniosus' from abundance of cattle.
finitioni subiecta maxime videntur genus, species, differens, §5.10.56proprium; ex iis omnibus argumenta ducuntur.
Under definition seem most of all to be subjected genus, species, difference, property; from all of these, arguments are derived.
genus ad probandam speciem minimum valet, plurimum ad refellendam.
Genus has the least power for proving species, but the greatest for refuting.
itaque non, quia est arbor, platanus est, at quod non est arbor, utique platanus non est; nec quod virtus est, utique iustitia est, at quod non est virtus, utique non potest esse iustitia.
And so, it is not the case that, because it is a tree, it is a plane tree; but that which is not a tree is certainly not a plane tree; nor because it is a virtue is it certainly justice; but that which is not a virtue certainly cannot be justice.
Itaque a genere perveniendum ad ultimam species: ut homo est animal non est satis, id enim genus est; mortale, etiamsi est species, cum aliis tamen communis finitio; rationale, nihil supererit ad demonstrandum id quod velis.
Therefore, from the genus we must arrive at the lowest species: as, 'man is an animal' is not enough, for that is the genus; 'mortal', even if it is a species, is nevertheless a definition common to others; 'rational' being added, nothing will remain to demonstrate what you wish.
contra species firmam probationem habet generis, §5.10.57infirmam refutationem.
On the contrary, species has a firm proof of genus, but a weak refutation.
nam, quod iustitia est, utique virtus est; quod non est iustitia, potest esse virtus, si est fortitudo, constantia, continentia.
For, what is justice is certainly virtue; what is not justice can be virtue, if it is courage, constancy, temperance.
nunquam itaque tolletur a specie genus, nisi ut omnes species, quae sunt generi subiectae, removeantur, hoc modo, quod nec rationale nec morale est neque animal, homo non est. §5.10.58his adiiciunt propria et differentia.
Therefore, genus will never be removed by species, unless all species that are subjected to the genus are removed, in this manner: 'that which is neither rational nor moral nor an animal is not a man.' To these they add properties and differences.
propriis confirmatur finitio, differentibus solvitur Proprium autem est aut quod soli accidit, ut homini sermo, risus; aut quidquid utique accidit sed non soli, ut igni calfacere.
By properties a definition is confirmed, by differences it is dissolved. Moreover, a property is either what happens to one alone, as speech or laughter to man; or whatever happens certainly but not to one alone, as to heat to fire.
et sunt eiusdem rei plura propria, ut ipsius ignis lucere, calere.
And there are several properties of the same thing, as of fire itself to shine and to be hot.
itaque, quodcunque proprium deerit, solvit finitionem; non utique, quodcunque erit, confirmat.
Therefore, whichever property is missing, it dissolves the definition; not certainly whichever is present confirms it.