§2.9.77 τοῖς δὲ μεγάλοις ἰσχυροτέρων δεῖ τῶν ὑπερεισμάτων καὶ μειζόνων καὶ σκληροτέρων, καὶ τούτων αὐτῶν τοῖς βιαστικωτέροις.
7 But larger animals require stronger, larger, and harder supports, and among these very animals, those that are more violent in their movements require them most.
διὸ τὰ τῶν ἀρρένων σκληρότερα ἢ τὰ τῶν θηλειῶν, καὶ τὰ τῶν σαρκοφάγων (ἡ τροφὴ γὰρ διὰ μάχης τούτοις), ὥσπερ τὰ τοῦ λέοντος· οὕτω γὰρ ἔχει ταῦτα σκληρὰν τὴν φύσιν ὥστʼ ἐξάπτεσθαι τυπτομένων καθάπερ ἐκ λίθων πῦρ.
Wherefore the bones of males are harder than those of females, and also those of carnivorous animals (for food is obtained by combat for these), just like those of the lion; for these have so hard a nature that fire is struck from them when they are beaten, just as from stones.
ἔχει δὲ καὶ ὁ δελφὶς οὐκ ἀκάνθας ἀλλʼ ὀστᾶ· ζῳοτόκος γάρ ἐστιν.
And the dolphin also has bones, not fish-spines; for it is viviparous.
§2.9.88 τοῖς δʼ ἐναίμοις μὲν μὴ ζῳοτόκοις δὲ παραλλάττει κατὰ μικρὸν ἡ φύσις, οἷον τοῖς ὄρνισιν ὀστᾶ μέν, ἀσθενέστερα δέ.
8 But in red-blooded but non-viviparous animals, nature varies by small degrees; for instance, birds have bones, but they are weaker.
§2.9.99 τῶν δʼ ἰχθύων τοῖς μὲν ᾠοτόκοις ἅκανθκ, καὶ τοῖς ὄφεσιν ἀκανθύὸδης ἐστὶν ἡ τῶν ὀστῶν φύσις, πλὴν τοῖς λίαν μεγάλοις· τούτοις δέ, διʼ ἅπερ καὶ τοῖς ζῳοτὸκοις, πρὸς τὴν ἰσχὺν ἰσχυροτέρων δεῖ τῶν στερεωμάτων.
9 And among fishes, the oviparous ones have fish-spines, and in serpents the nature of the bones is spine-like, except for those that are exceedingly large; for these, for the very same reason as viviparous animals, require stronger solid supports for the sake of strength.
τὰ δὲ καλούμενα σελάχη χονδράκανθα τὴν φύσιν ἐστίν· ὑγροτέραν τε γὰρ ἀναγκαῖον αὐτῶν εἶναι τὴν κίνησιν, ᾥστε δεῖ καὶ τὴν τῶν ἐρεισμάτων μὴ κραύρον εἶναι ἀλλὰ μαλακωτέραν, καὶ τὸ γεῶδες εἰς τὸ δέρμα πᾶν ἀνήλωκεν ἡ φύσις· ἅμα δὲ τὴν αὐτὴν ὑπεροχὴν εἰς πολλοὺς τόπους ἀδυνατεῖ διανέμειν ἡ φύσις.
And the so-called selachians are by nature cartilaginous-spined; for their movement must be more supple, so that the nature of their supports also must not be brittle but softer, and nature has consumed all the earthy matter on the skin; and at the same time, nature is unable to distribute the same excess to many places.
§2.9.1010 ἔνεστι δὲ καὶ ἐν τοῖς ζῳοτόκοις πολλὰ τῶν ὀστῶν χονδρύδη, ἐν ὅσοις όυμφέρει μαλακὸν εἶναι καὶ ζυμῶδες τὸ στερεὸν διὰ τὴν σάρκα τὴν περικειμένην, σἷον συμβέβηκε περί τε τὰ ὡτα καὶ τοὺς μυκτὴρας· θραύεται γὰρ τὰ κραῦρα ταχέως ἐν τοῖς ἀπέχουσιν.
10 But there are also many cartilaginous bones in viviparous animals, in all those parts where it is advantageous for the solid support to be soft and dough-like because of the surrounding flesh, as is the case around the ears and the nostrils; for brittle things are quickly broken in projecting parts.
ἡ δὲ φύσις ἡ αὐτὴ χόνδρου καὶ ὀστοῦ ἐστί, διαφέρει δὲ τῷ μάλλον καὶ ἧττον· διὸ καὶ οὐδέτερον αὐξάνεται ἀποκοπέν.
And the nature of cartilage and bone is the same, differing only in degree (the more and the less); wherefore neither of them grows again when cut off.
οἱ μὲν σὗν ἐν τοῖς πεζοῖς ἀμύελοι χόνδροι κεχωρισμένῳ μυελῷ· τὸ γὰρ χωριζὀμενον εἰς ἅπαν μεμιγμένον μαλακὴν ποιεῖ καὶ ζυμώδη τὴν τοῦ χόνδρου σύστασιν.
Now, the cartilages in land animals have no separate marrow; for that which would be separated is mixed throughout the whole, making the consistency of cartilage soft and dough-like.
§2.9.11ἐν δὲ τοῖς 11 σελάχεσιν ἡ ῥάχις χονδρώδης μέν ἐστιν, ἔχει δὲ μυελόν· ἀντʼ ὀστοῦ γὰρ αὑτοῖς ὑπάρχει τοῦτο τὸ μόριον.
11 But in the selachians, the spine, though cartilaginous, has marrow; for this part exists for them instead of bone.
σύνεγγυς δὲ κατὰ τὴν ἁρήν ἐστι τοῖς ὀστοῖς καὶ τὰ τοιάδε τῶν μορίων οἷον ὄνυχές τε καὶ ὁπλαὶ καὶ χηλαὶ καὶ κέρατα καὶ ῥύγχη τὰ τῶν ἀρνίθωυ.
And very close to bones in their touch (or joint) are also such parts as claws, hoofs, pincers, horns, and the beaks of birds.
πάντα δὲ ταῦτα βοηθείας ἔχουσι χάριν τὰ ζῷα· τὰ γὰρ ἐξ οὐτῶν συνεστηκότα ὅλα καὶ συνύνυμα τοῖς μορίοις, οἷον ὁπλή τε ὅλη καὶ κέρας ὅλον,. μεμηχάνηται πρὸς τὴν σωτηρίαν ἑκάστοις.
And animals have all of these for the sake of protection; for those parts which are constituted as wholes from them and are homonymous with their parts, such as an entire hoof and an entire horn, have been devised for the preservation of each.
ἐν τούτῳ δὲ τῷ γένει καὶ ἡ τῶν ὀδόντων ἐστὶ φύσις, τοῖς μὲν ὑπάρχουσα πρὸς ἓν ἔργον τὴν τῆς τροφῆς ἐργασίαν, τοῖς δὲ πρός τε τούτο καὶ πρὸς ἀλκήν, οἷον τοῖς καρχαρόδουσι καὶ χαυλιόδουσι πἀσιν.
And in this class is also the nature of teeth, which belongs to some for a single function, the preparation of food, but to others for this and also for defense, as in all those with saw-like teeth and tusks.
§2.9.1212 ἐξ ἀνάγκης δὲ πάντα ταύτα 12 γεώδη καὶ στερεὰν ἔχει τὴν φύσιν· ὅπλου γὰρ αὕτη δύναμις.
12 And of necessity all these have an earthy and solid nature; for this is the power of a weapon.
διὸ καὶ πάντα τὰ τοιαῦτα μἀλλον ἐν τοῖς τετράποσιν ὑπάρχει ζῄοις τῶν ζῳοτόκων, διὰ τὸ γεωδεστέραν ἔχειν πάντα τὴν σύστασιν ἢ τὸ τῶν ἀνθρώπων γένος.
Wherefore all such parts belong more to the quadrupeds among the viviparous animals, because they all have a more earthy consistency than the class of humans.
§2.9.1313 ἀλλὰ καὶ περὶ τούτων καὶ τῶν ἐχομένων, 13 οἷον δέρματος καὶ κύστεως καὶ ὑμένος καὶ τριχην καὶ πτερὧν καὶ τῶν ἀνάλογον τούτοις καὶ εῖ τι τοιοῦτόν ἐστι μέρος, ὕστερον ἕμα τοῖς ἀνομοιομερέσι θεωρητέον τὴν αἰτίαν αὐτῶν, καὶ τίνος ἓνεκεν ὑπάρχει τοῖς ζῴοις ἕκαστον· ἐκ τῶν ἔργων γὰρ γνωρίζειν, ὥσπερ κἀκεῖνα, καὶ ταύτα ἀναγκαῖον ἄν εἴη.
13 But concerning these parts and those connected with them, such as skin, bladder, membrane, hair, feathers, and their analogues, and if there is any other such part, we must later, together with the non-uniform parts, investigate their cause, and for the sake of what each of them belongs to animals; for it would be necessary to recognize these also from their functions, just like those others.
§2.9.1414 ἀλλʼ ὅτι συνώνυμα τοῖς ὅλοις τὰ μέρη, τὴν τάξιν ἀπέλαβεν ἐν τοῖς ὁμοιομερέσι νῦν.
14 But because the parts are homonymous with the wholes, they have now received their place among the uniform parts.
εἰσὶ δʼ ἀρχαὶ πάντων τούτων τό τε ὀστοῦν καὶ ἡ σάρξ.
And the principles of all of these are bone and flesh.
ἔτι δὲ περὶ γονῆς καὶ γάλακτος ἀπελίπομεν ἐν τῇ περὶ τῶν ὑγρῶν καὶ ὁμοιομερῶν θεωρίᾳʼ τοῖς γὰρ περὶ γενέσεωος λόγοις ἁρμόττουσαν ἔχει τὴν σκέψιν· τὸ μὲν γὰρ αὐτῶν ἀρχὴ τὸ δὲ τροφὴ τῶν γινομένωνε ἐστίν.
Moreover, we left out the discussion of semen and milk in the inquiry concerning fluid and uniform parts; for they have an inquiry that fits the discussions concerning generation; for one of them is the principle, and the other is the food, of the offspring.