§2.1.4Ἐπεὶ δʼ ἀδύνατον ἄλλως ἔχειν οὗ ἔστιν ἐπιστήμη ἀπλῶς, ἀναγκαῖον ἂν εἴη τὸ ἐπιστητὸν τὸ κατὰ τὴν ἀποδεικτικὴν ἐπιστήμην·
Since it is impossible for that of which there is unqualified knowledge to be otherwise, that which is knowable according to demonstrative knowledge must be necessary.
ἀποδεικτικὴ δʼ ἐστὶν ἣν ἔχομεν τῷ ἔχειν ἀπόδειξιν.
And demonstrative knowledge is that which we possess by virtue of possessing a demonstration.
ἐξ ἀναγκαίων ἄρα συλλογισμός ἐστιν ἡ ἀπόδειξις.
Therefore, demonstration is a deduction from necessary premises.
ληπτέον ἄρα ἐκ τίνων καὶ ποίων αἱ ἀποδείξεις εἰσίν.
We must therefore grasp from what things and what kind of things demonstrations proceed.
πρῶτον δὲ διορίσωμεν τί λέγομεν τὸ κατὰ παντὸς καὶ τί τὸ καθʼ αὑτὸ καὶ τί τὸ καθόλου.
But first let us define what we mean by 'predicated of all', 'in itself', and 'universally'.
Κατὰ παντὸς μὲν οὖν τοῦτο λέγω ὃ ἂν ᾖ μὴ ἐπὶ τινὸς μὲν τινὸς δὲ μή, μηδὲ ποτὲ μὲν ποτὲ δὲ μή, οἷον εἰ κατὰ παντὸς ἀνθρώπου ζῷον, εἰ ἀληθὲς τόνδʼ εἰπεῖν ἄνθρωπον, ἀληθὲς καὶ ζῷον, καὶ εἰ νῦν θάτερον, καὶ θάτερον, καὶ εἰ ἐν πάσῃ γραμμῇ στιγμή, ὡσαύτως.
Now, by 'predicated of all' I mean that which is not predicated of some and not of others, nor at one time and not at another; for example, if 'animal' is predicated of every man, if it is true to call this individual a man, it is true also to call him an animal, and if the former is true now, the latter is also true now; and if a point is in every line, the same applies.
σημεῖον δέ· καὶ γὰρ τὰς ἐνστάσεις οὕτω φέρομεν ὡς κατὰ παντὸς ἐρωτώμενοι, ἢ εἰ ἐπί τινι μή, ἢ εἴ ποτε μή.
And this is indicated by the fact that we bring forward objections in this way when we are questioned about 'predicated of all'—namely, if it does not apply in some case, or if it does not apply at some time.
Καθʼ αὐτὰ δʼ ὅσα ὑπάρχει τε ἐν τῷ τί ἐστιν, οἷον τριγώνῳ γραμμὴ καὶ γραμμῇ στιγμή (ἡ γὰρ οὐσία αὐτῶν ἐκ τούτων ἐστί, καὶ ἐν τῷ λόγῳ τῷ λέγοντι τί ἐστιν ἐνυπάρχει), καὶ ὅσοις τῶν ὑπαρχόντων αὐτοῖς αὐτὰ ἐν τῷ λόγῳ ἐνυπάρχουσι τῷ τί ἐστι δηλοῦντι, οἷον τὸ εὐθὺ ὑπάρχει γραμμῇ καὶ τὸ περιφερές, καὶ τὸ περιττὸν καὶ ἄρτιον ἀριθμῷ, καὶ τὸ πρῶτον καὶ σύνθετον, καὶ ἰσόπλευρον καὶ ἑτερόμηκες· καὶ πᾶσι τούτοις ἐνυπάρχουσιν ἐν τῷ λόγῳ τῷ τί ἐστι λέγοντι ἔνθα μὲν γραμμὴ ἔνθα δʼ ἀριθμός.
And 'in themselves' are those things which both belong to something in its 'what it is', for example, line to triangle and point to line (for their substance is composed of these, and these are contained in the formula that states what they are); and secondly, those things belonging to them in which the things themselves are contained in the formula that declares what they are; for example, straight or curved belongs to line, and odd or even to number, and prime or composite, and equilateral or oblong; and in all these there is contained in the formula that states what they are, in the one case line, and in the other number.
ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων τὰ τοιαῦθʼ ἑκάστοις καθʼ αὑτὰ λέγω, ὅσα δὲ μηδετέρως ὑπάρχει, συμβεβηκότα, οἷον τὸ μουσικὸν ἢ λευκὸν τῷ ζῴῳ.
And similarly in the case of other things also I call such things 'in themselves' for each, but whatever belongs in neither way I call 'accidents', for example, musical or white to animal.
ἔτι ὅ μὴ καθʼ ὑποκειμένου λέγεται ἄλλου τινός, οἷον τὸ βαδίζον ἕτερόν τι ὂν βαδίζον ἐστὶ καὶ τὸ λευκὸν 〈λευκόν〉, ἡ δʼ οὐσία, καὶ ὅσα τόδε τι σημαίνει, οὐχ ἕτερόν τι ὄντα ἐστὶν ὅπερ ἐστίν.
Furthermore, thirdly, that which is not predicated of any other underlying subject; for example, that which walks is walking by being something else, and that which is white is white by being something else, but substance, and whatever signifies a 'this', is not what it is by being something else.
τὰ μὲν δὴ μὴ καθʼ ὑποκειμένου καθʼ αὐτὰ λέγω, τὰ δὲ καθʼ ὑποκειμένου συμβεβηκότα.
So, things not predicated of an underlying subject I call 'in themselves', but things predicated of an underlying subject I call 'accidents'.
ἔτι δʼ ἄλλον τρόπον τὸ μὲν διʼ αὑτὸ ὑπάρχον ἑκάστῳ καθʼ αὑτό, τὸ δὲ μὴ διʼ αὐτὸ συμβεβηκός, οἷον εἰ βαδίζοντος ἤστραψε, συμβεβηκός· οὐ γὰρ διὰ τὸ βαδίζειν ἤστραψεν, ἀλλὰ συνέβη, φαμέν, τοῦτο.
And in yet another way, that which belongs to each thing because of itself is 'in itself', and that which does not because of itself is an 'accident'; for example, if it lightened while someone was walking, it is an accident; for it did not lighten because of his walking, but, we say, this happened to coincide.
εἰ δὲ διʼ αὑτό, καθʼ αὐτό, οἷον εἴ τι σφαττόμενον ἀπέθανε, καὶ κατὰ τὴν σφαγήν, ὅτι διὰ τὸ σφάττεσθαι, ἀλλʼ οὐ συνέβη σφαττόμενον ἀποθανεῖν.
But if it belongs because of itself, it is 'in itself'; for example, if something died while being slaughtered, and in accordance with the slaughtering, because it died because of being slaughtered, and it did not happen to coincide that it died while being slaughtered.
τὰ ἄρα λεγόμενα ἐπὶ τῶν ἁπλῶς ἐπιστητῶν καθʼ αὑτὰ οὕτως ὡς ἐνυπάρχειν τοῖς κατηγορουμένοις ἢ ἐνυπάρχεσθαι διʼ αὐτά τέ ἐστι καὶ ἐξ ἀνάγκης.
So, things spoken of as 'in themselves' in the case of things that are unqualifiedly objects of knowledge, in the sense of being contained in the predicates or containing them, exist because of themselves and are of necessity.
οὐ γὰρ ἐνδέχεται μὴ ὑπάρχειν ἢ ἀπλῶς ἢ τὰ ἀντικείμενα, οἷον γραμμῇ τὸ εὐθύ ἢ τὸ καμπύλον καὶ ἀριθμῷ τὸ περιττὸν ἢ τὸ ἄρτιον.
For it is not possible for them not to belong, either unqualifiedly or as one of the opposites; for example, straight or curved to line, and odd or even to number.
ἔστι γὰρ τὸ ἐναντίον ἢ στέρησις ἢ ἀντίφασις ἐν τῷ αὐτῷ γένει, οἷον ἄρτιον τὸ μὴ περιττὸν ἐν ἀριθμοῖς ᾗ ἕπεται.
For the contrary is either a privation or a contradiction in the same genus; for example, even is that which is not odd in numbers, insofar as this follows.
ὥστʼ εἰ ἀνάγκη φάναι ἢ ἀποφάναι, ἀνάγκη καὶ τὰ καθʼ αὐτὰ ὑπάρχειν.
So that if it is necessary either to assert or to deny, it is necessary also for the things that belong 'in themselves' to belong.
Τὸ μὲν οὖν κατὰ παντὸς καὶ καθʼ αὑτὸ διωρίσθω τὸν τρόπον τοῦτον·
Let 'predicated of all' and 'in itself' be defined in this manner then.
καθόλου δὲ λέγω ὃ ἂν κατὰ παντός τε ὑπάρχῃ καὶ καθʼ αὑτὸ καὶ ᾗ αὐτό.
Now, by 'universally' I mean that which belongs both to all and in itself, and insofar as it is itself.
φανερόν ἄρα ὅτι ὅσα καθόλου, ἐξ ἀνάγκης ὑπάρχει τοῖς πράγμασιν.
Therefore, it is clear that whatever belongs universally belongs to things of necessity.
τὸ καθʼ αὑτὸ δὲ καὶ ᾗ αὐτὸ ταὐτόν, οἷον καθʼ αὐτὴν τῇ γραμμῇ ὑπάρχει στιγμὴ καὶ τὸ εὐθύ (καὶ γὰρ ᾗ γραμμή), καὶ τῷ τριγώνῳ ᾗ τρίγωνον δύο ὀρθαί (καὶ γὰρ καθʼ αὑτὸ τὸ τρίγωνον δύο ὀρθαῖς ἴσον).
And 'in itself' and 'insofar as it is itself' are the same; for example, point and straight belong to line in itself (for they belong to it insofar as it is a line), and two right angles belong to triangle insofar as it is a triangle (for the triangle is in itself equal to two right angles).
τὸ καθόλου δὲ ὑπάρχει τότε, ὅταν ἐπὶ τοῦ τυχόντος καὶ πρώτου δεικνύηται.
And the universal belongs then, when it is demonstrated of any chance case and of the first.
οἷον τὸ δύο ὀρθὰς ἔχειν οὔτε τῷ σχήματί ἐστι καθόλου (καίτοι ἔστι δεῖξαι κατὰ σχήματος ὅτι δύο ὀρθὰς ἔχει, ἀλλʼ οὐ τοῦ τυχόντος σχήματος, οὐδὲ χρῆται τῷ τυχόντι σχήματι δεικνύς· τὸ γὰρ τετράγωνον σχῆμα μέν, οὐκ ἔχει δὲ δύο ὀρθαῖς ἴσας)— τὸ δʼ ἰσοσκελὲς ἔχει μὲν τὸ τυχὸν δύο ὀρθαῖς ἴσας, ἀλλʼ οὐ πρῶτον, ἀλλὰ τὸ τρίγωνον πρότερον.
For example, having two right angles is not universal to figure (although one can demonstrate of a figure that it has two right angles, but not of any chance figure, nor does one use any chance figure in demonstrating it; for the square is a figure, but it does not have angles equal to two right angles)— and the isosceles triangle does have angles equal to two right angles in any chance case, but not as the first; rather, the triangle is prior.
ὃ τοίνυν τὸ τυχὸν πρῶτον δείκνυται δύο ὀρθὰς ἔχον ἢ ὁτιοῦν ἄλλο, τούτῳ πρώτῳ ὑπάρχει καθόλου, καὶ ἡ ἀπόδειξις καθʼ αὑτὸ τούτου καθόλου ἐστί, τῶν δʼ ἄλλων τρόπον τινὰ οὐ καθʼ αὑτό, οὐδὲ τοῦ ἰσοσκελοῦς οὐκ ἔστι καθόλου ἀλλʼ ἐπὶ πλέον.
That, therefore, which is demonstrated as the first chance case to have two right angles or anything else, to this first it belongs universally, and the demonstration in itself of this is universal, but of the others it is in a way not in itself, nor is it universal to the isosceles, but extends further.