§1## ΓΑΛΗΝΟΥ ΠΕΡΙ ΤΩΝ ΤΗΣ ΑΝΑΠΝΟΗΣ ΑΙΤΙΩΝ.
Τὰ τῆς ἀναπνοῆς αἴτια ὁ προκείμενος ἀποδεῖξαι λόγος ἐπαγγέλλεται.
## GALEN, ON THE CAUSES OF BREATHING. The present treatise promises to demonstrate the causes of breathing.
οὔτε γὰρ βεβαιώσασθαι τὴν ὑπόθεσιν τῆς ἀναπνοῆς, οὔτε παραποδιζομένην ἢ καὶ τέλεον εἰργομένην ἐπανορθώσασθαι δυνατὸν τὰς αἰτίας αὐτῆς ἀγνοοῦντα.
For it is not possible for one who is ignorant of its causes either to establish the hypothesis of breathing, or to correct it when it is impeded or even completely prevented.
ὁ γὰρ τὸ ποιοῦν φωράσας πρὸς ἀλήθειαν, οὗτος εἰδήσει μόνος καὶ τῆς βλάβης τὴν διαφορὰν, καὶ τῆς ἰάσεως τὸν τρόπον.
For he who has truly discovered the producing cause, he alone will know both the difference of the impairment and the method of cure.
ὄντων δὲ τριῶν κατὰ γένος, ὡς τύπῳ φάναι, τῶν αἰτίων τῆς ἀναπνοῆς, δυνάμεως προαιρετικῆς, ὀργάνων τῶν ὑπηρετουμένων τῇ προαιρέσει, κᾀπὶ τούτοις τῆς χρείας, δι’ ἣν καὶ τῶν προκειμένων αἰτίων δεόμεθα, ἡ μὲν χρεία τὸ κυριώτατόν ἐστι τῶν τῆς ἀναπνοῆς αἰτίων, τηροῦσα μὲν τὴν συμμετρίαν τῆς ἐμφύτου θερμασίας, τρέφουσα δὲ τὴν οὐσίαν τοῦ ψυχικοῦ πνεύματος· ἡ προαίρεσις δὲ διατάττει καὶ οἷον ῥυθμίζει τὰς ἀναπνευστικὰς ἐνεργείας· τό γε μὴν τῶν ὀργάνων εἶδος πολυσχιδὲς καὶ πολύτροπόν τι καθέστηκε.
Since there are, generally speaking, three kinds of causes of breathing—voluntary power, the organs serving the will, and, in addition to these, the utility for the sake of which we need the aforementioned causes—utility is the most principal of the causes of breathing, preserving the symmetry of the innate heat, and nourishing the substance of the psychic pneuma; while the will disposes and, as it were, regulates the respiratory activities; and the form of the organs is established as something manifold and diverse.
τὰ μὲν γὰρ τῇ παρακομιδῇ τοῦ πνεύματος ἀνάκειται· τὰ δ’ ὑποδέχεται τὸν ἀέρα· τὰ δὲ τούτων ἐστὶ κινητικὰ τῶν κινούντων.
For some of them are dedicated to the conveyance of the pneuma; others receive the air; and others are the movers of these moving parts.
ἀρχὴ μὲν οὖν διὰ τοῦ στόματος καὶ τῶν ῥινῶν ἑλκόμενος ἀὴρ, ὕλη τυγχάνων τῆς κατὰ τὴν ἀναπνοὴν χρείας, διχῇ μεριζόμενος, θατέρῳ μὲν, τῷ μείονι, διὰ τῶν ῥινῶν εἰς τὸν ἐγκέφαλον φερόμενος, θατέρῳ δὲ, τῷ πλείονι, διὰ τῆς τραχείας ἀρτηρίας εἰς τὸν πνεύμονα κομιζόμενος.
First, then, the air drawn in through the mouth and nostrils, being the material for the utility of breathing, is divided into two: on the one hand, the lesser part is carried through the nostrils into the brain; on the other hand, the greater part is conveyed through the trachea into the lungs.
αὐτή γε μὴν ἡ ἀρτηρία, ὄργανον οὖσα φωνῆς, ὁδός ἐστιν ἀναπνοῆς.
And indeed this trachea itself, being the organ of voice, is the pathway of breathing.
ὁ δὲ πνεύμων οἷα βαθὺς γαστὴρ ὑπόκειται τῷ πνεύματι.
And the lung lies beneath the pneuma like a deep belly.
τούτου δὲ τὰς διαστολάς τε καὶ συστολὰς ὁ θώραξ οἰακίζει, μυσὶ κινούμενος, ὀστοῖς τε διαρθρούμενος.
And the thorax steers its expansions and contractions, being moved by muscles and articulated by bones.
καὶ μὴν καὶ τὸ διάφραγμα· καὶ γὰρ δὴ καὶ αὐτὸ τοῦτο ἦν ὄργανον ἀναπνοῆς· κυκλοτερὲς δέ ἐστι, καὶ νευρῶδες μὲν περὶ τὸ κέντρον ἑαυτοῦ, σαρκῶδες δὲ τὰ πέριξ.
And also the diaphragm; for indeed this itself was also an organ of breathing; and it is circular, and tendinous around its center, but fleshy at the periphery.
οὕτω δὲ καὶ οἱ κατὰ τὰς πλευρὰς μύες, οἱ μὲν ἐν ταῖς μέσαις χώραις αὐτοῦ δύο καὶ εἴκοσιν τυγχάνουσιν, καὶ δύο μὲν οἱ τῶν πρώτων πλευρῶν, ἰσάριθμοι δὲ τούτων οἱ τῶν ἐσχάτων δύο· καὶ πρὸς τούτοις οἱ καθήκοντες ἐκ τοῦ τραχήλου τρεῖς· εἶθ’ οἱ παρατεταμένοι τοῖς ῥαχίταις ἑπτά· σὺν αὐτοῖς δὲ οἱ κατ’ ἐπιγάστριον ὀκτώ.
So also are the muscles along the ribs: those in the middle spaces of it happen to be twenty-two, and two of the first ribs, and equal in number to these of the last two ribs; and in addition to these, those descending from the neck, three; then those stretched along the spinal columns, seven; and with them, those in the epigastrium, eight.
τοσοῦτοι μὲν οἱ ὑπηρετοῦντες μύες τῇ ἀναπνοῇ.
So many are the muscles serving breathing.
ἐνέργειαι δὲ καθ’ ἕκαστον τούτων, τῶν μὲν τῶν φρενῶν, ἀβίαστον ἐργάζεσθαι τὴν ἀναπνοὴν, τῶν δὲ κατὰ τὰς πλευρὰς, διαστέλλειν τε καὶ συστέλλειν ἀκριβῶς τὸν θώρακα.
And the activities for each of these: of the diaphragm, to produce unforced breathing; of those along the ribs, to precisely expand and contract the thorax.
διπλῶν δὲ ὄντων αὐτῶν, οἱ μὲν ἐκτὸς τὴν ἐκπνοὴν, οἱ δ’ ἐντὸς τὴν εἰσπνοὴν ἀποτελοῦσιν.
Since these are double, those on the outside effect expiration, and those on the inside effect inspiration.
καὶ τῶν μὲν πρώτων δυοῖν ἐνέργεια μέν ἐστι διαστέλλειν μόνον τὸ ἄνω τοῦ θώρακος μέρος, τῶν δ’ ἐσχάτων συστέλλειν μόνον τὸ κάτω μέρος.
And of the first two, the activity is only to expand the upper part of the thorax, while of the last, only to contract the lower part.
οἱ δ’ ἐκ τῶν τραχήλων καθήκοντες ἀνασπῶσί τε ἅμα καὶ διαστέλλουσι τὰ τοῦ θώρακος ὑψηλὰ μόρια.
And those descending from the neck both draw up and at the same time expand the high parts of the thorax.
τῶν δὲ ὀρθίων τῶν κατὰ τὸν τράχηλον οἱ μὲν πρὸς τὰς κλεῖς ἀνατεινόμενοι προστέλλουσι τὰ ταύτῃ πέρατα τῶν χόνδρων, ὥσπερ καὶ οἱ παρατεταμένοι ταῖς ῥαχίτισι ῥίζαις τῶν πλευρῶν.
And of the straight muscles along the neck, those extending toward the clavicles draw in the ends of the cartilages in that area, just as do those stretched along the spinal roots of the ribs.
οἱ δὲ κατ’ ἐπιγάστριον, ἕδρα τῶν φρενῶν ὄντες, τῇ τοῦ θώρακος βοηθοῦσι συστολῇ.
And those in the epigastrium, being the seat of the diaphragm, assist in the contraction of the thorax.
διττῶν τοίνυν οὐσῶν κατὰ γένος τῶν ἀναπνοῶν, ἀβιάστου τε καὶ βιαίας, εἶθ’ ἑκατέρας αὐτῶν ἐχούσης οἰκεῖα μόρια β΄, τήν τε εἰσπνοὴν καὶ τὴν ἐκπνοὴν, τέτταρα τὰ σύμπαντα μόρια γίγνεται τῆς ἀναπνοῆς.
Therefore, since breathing is of two kinds in genus, unforced and forced, and each of them has its own two parts, namely inspiration and expiration, there are four parts of breathing in all.
καθ’ ἕκαστον δὲ τῶν τεττάρων ἰδία τις φύσις ὀργάνων ἐστὶ, ἀβιάστου μὲν εἰσπνοῆς τὸ διάφραγμα, βιαίας δὲ ἥ τε κατὰ τὰ σιμὰ τῶν ὠμοπλατῶν, ἥ τ’ ἐντὸς τῶν μεσοπλευρίων μοῖρα· ὡσαύτως δὲ καὶ τῆς ἐκπνοῆς, ἀβιάστου μὲν οἱ κατ’ ἐπιγάστριον μύες, βιαίας δὲ τῶν μεσοπλευρίων ἡ ἐκτὸς μοῖρα.
And for each of the four there is a certain specific nature of organs: of unforced inspiration, the diaphragm; of forced inspiration, both the part along the flat parts of the shoulder blades and the inner part of the intercostals; likewise also of expiration: of unforced expiration, the muscles in the epigastrium; of forced expiration, the outer part of the intercostals.
τὰ μὲν δὴ κατὰ τοὺς μῦς ᾧδ’ ἔχει.
So much for the matters concerning the muscles.
τῶν δὲ νεύρων τὰ μὲν εἰς τὸ διάφραγμα καθήκοντα, ἐκ τῆς μεταξὺ τετάρτου τε καὶ πέμπτου τῶν ἐν τῷ τραχήλῳ σπονδύλων διαρθρώσεως ὁρμηθέντα, δύο ὄντα, εἰς αὐτὸ τὸ νευρῶδες αὐτοῦ μέρος καταφύεται· τὰ δ’ εἰς τοὺς μεσοπλευρίους μῦς ἐκ τῆς ῥάχεως διασπειρόμενα εἰς τὸ στέρνον φέρονται, οὔτ’ οὖν ὀρθὰ κατὰ τοῦ ζώου μῆκος ἐκτεινόμενα, οὔτ’ ἐγκάρσια ὁμοίως τοῖς μυσὶν, ἀλλὰ λοξὰ φερόμενα, κεφαλὴν μὲν ἔχοντα τὸν ταύτῃ σπόνδυλον, τελευτὴν δὲ τὸ στέρνον.
And of the nerves, those descending to the diaphragm—originating from the articulation between the fourth and fifth of the vertebrae in the neck, being two—are inserted into its tendinous part itself; while those to the intercostal muscles, being dispersed from the spine, are carried to the sternum, neither extending straight along the length of the animal, nor transverse like the muscles, but running obliquely, having as their origin the vertebra in that place, and as their end the sternum.
καὶ μὴν καὶ τὰ εἰς τοὺς ἄλλους μῦς τοὺς τῆς ἀναπνοῆς δημιουργοὺς φερόμενα σχεδὸν ἅπαντα ἐκ τοῦ ῥαχίτου μυελοῦ βεβλάστηκε.
And indeed, those carried to the other muscles that produce breathing almost all arise from the spinal cord.
τοιούτων οὖν καὶ τοσούτων ὑπαρχόντων τῶν τῆς ἀναπνοῆς αἰτίων, εὔδηλον τῷ γε μὴ παντάπασιν ἀνοήτῳ, τίνι διενήνοχεν ἕκαστον αὐτῶν.
Since such and so many are the causes of breathing, it is clear to anyone who is not altogether foolish how each of them differs.
ἡ μὲν γὰρ προαίρεσις ἔοικε τῷ κινοῦντι τὰς ἡνίας καὶ τοὺς ἵππους ἀναβάτῃ· ταῖς δ’ ἡνίαις τὰ νεῦρα ἐοίκασι, καθάπερ καὶ ἵπποις οἱ μύες· οὕτω δὲ καὶ ἡ χρεία τὸ ἔσχατον ὀρεκτὸν καθέστηκε τῆς ἀναπνοῆς, ὥσπερ ἡ νίκη τῆς ἡνιοχικῆς.
For the will resembles the rider who moves the reins and the horses; the nerves resemble the reins, just as the muscles resemble the horses; and likewise, utility is established as the ultimate object of desire of breathing, just as victory is of the art of charioteering.