Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers

​The fifth form of rhetoric is whenever one speaks well of someone and shows him to be noble and good; such a form is called encomium. The sixth form is whenever one shows someone to be base; such a form is called censure. Of rhetoric, then, there is encomium, censure, hortatory, dissuasive, accusation, and defense. Speaking correctly is divided into four parts: first, what one ought to say; second, how much one ought to say; third, to whom one ought to say it; and fourth, when one ought to say it. Now, what one ought to say is what will be beneficial both to the speaker and to the hearer. How much one ought to say is neither more nor less than what is sufficient.

​To whom one ought to say it means that whether one converses with elders, one ought to converse with words fitting for elders; or whether with younger people, words ought to be spoken fitting for younger people. When to say it means neither too early nor too late; otherwise, one will err and not speak correctly. Beneficence is divided into four kinds: for it is either by money, or by bodies, or by branches of knowledge, or by words. By money, then, is whenever someone assists a person in need so that he may have plenty in respect of money. By bodies they do good to one another whenever they arrive on the scene and assist those who are being beaten.

​Those who educate, heal, and teach something good confer benefits by branches of knowledge. Whenever someone enters a court of law as an advocate on behalf of another and delivers an equitable speech for him, he indeed confers a benefit by words. Of beneficence, then, one kind is through money, another through bodies, another through knowledge, and the fourth through words. The end (completion) of things is divided into four forms: first, things reach an end according to law, whenever a decree is passed and the law brings this to fulfillment; things reach an end according to nature, such as the day, the year, and the seasons; things reach an end according to art, such as building, for one completes a house; and shipbuilding, for it completes ships.

​An end comes to things according to fortune whenever an outcome occurs differently and not as one expects. Of the end of things, then, one is according to law, another according to nature, another according to art, and another according to fortune. Capacity (power) is divided into four forms: one is what we are capable of through the intellect, namely to calculate and conjecture; another through the body, such as to walk, give, receive, and the like; a third is what we are capable of through an abundance of soldiers and wealth, whence a king is called one possessing great power; and the fourth division of capacity is to be affected and to act well or ill—such as that we are capable of being sick, being educated, becoming healthy, and all such things. Of capacity, then, one is in the intellect, another in the body, another in an army and wealth, and another in acting and being affected.

​Of benevolence (love of humanity) there are three forms: one coming about through address, such as among those who address everyone they encounter and greet them by clasping the right hand. Another form is whenever one is ready to help anyone who is unfortunate. Another form of benevolence is that in which people are fond of hosting dinner guests. Of benevolence, then, one kind is through greeting, another through doing good, and another through banqueting and enjoying fellowship. Happiness is divided into five parts: for one part of it is good counsel, another is soundness of senses and bodily health, a third is good fortune in actions, a fourth is good repute among people, and a fifth is an abundance of wealth and things useful for life.