Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers

​Another form is if a person is himself noble in soul and magnanimous; people say that this person too is well-born; and this is indeed the best kind of good birth. Of good birth, then, one sort derives from virtuous ancestors, another from rulers, another from renowned ancestors, and another from one's own nobility of character. Beauty is divided into three kinds: for one kind of it is praiseworthy, such as comeliness through sight; another is utilitarian, such as an instrument, a house, and the like, which are beautiful for use; and another pertains to laws, customs, and the like, which are beautiful for utility. Of beauty, then, one kind is directed to praise, another to use, and another to utility.

​The soul is divided into three parts: for one part of it is rational, another appetitive, and another spirited. Of these, the rational part is the cause of deliberate counsel, reasoning, thinking, and all such activities; the appetitive part of the soul is the cause of desiring to eat, of sexual union, and of all such things; while the spirited part is the cause of feeling confidence, feeling joy, grieving, and being angry. Of the soul, then, there is the rational part, the appetitive part, and the spirited part. Of complete virtue there are four forms: one is prudence, one is justice, another is courage, and the fourth is temperance.

​Of these, prudence is the cause of doing things correctly; justice of acting justly in associations and contracts; courage of causing one not to flinch in dangers and fears, but to stand firm; and temperance of mastering desires, of not being enslaved by any pleasure, but living in an orderly manner. Of virtue, then, one part is prudence, another justice, a third courage, and a fourth temperance. Rule is divided into five parts: one according to law, one according to nature, one according to custom, a fourth according to birth, and a fifth by force.

​Now rulers in cities, whenever they are elected by the citizens, rule according to law; those who rule according to nature are males, not only among human beings, but also among the other animals; for largely everywhere males rule over females. Rule according to custom is of such a kind as pedagogues exercise over children and teachers over pupils. Rule according to birth is described as being of such a kind as the Lacedaemonian kings exercise; for kingship derives from a certain lineage. In Macedonia too they rule in the same manner; for there as well kingship is established from birth. Those who rule against the will of the citizens, having used violence or deception—such rule is said to be by force. Of rule, then, one kind is according to law, another according to nature, another according to custom, another according to birth, and another by force.

​There are six forms of rhetoric. For whenever they urge people to go to war or to make an alliance with someone, such a form is called hortatory (persuasion). Whenever they urge people not to go to war nor to make an alliance, but to keep peace, such a form is dissuasive. A third form of rhetoric is whenever someone claims to be wronged by another and shows that person to be the cause of many evils; such a form is called accusation. The fourth form of rhetoric is whenever one shows oneself to be doing no wrong and committing nothing else improper; such a form they call defense.