Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers

​Good counsel arises from education and from becoming experienced in many things. Soundness of senses arises from the parts of the body, such as if one sees with the eyes, hears with the ears, and perceives with the nostrils and mouth the things that one ought to perceive; such a condition is soundness of senses. Good fortune is whenever, with respect to what one aims at, one acts rightly to accomplish what the worthy man ought to do. Good repute is whenever one is well spoken of. Abundance is whenever one is so situated regarding the uses in life as to do good to friends and to discharge public liturgies honorably and lavishly. He to whom all these things belong is completely happy. Of happiness, then, there is good counsel, soundness of senses and bodily health, good fortune, good repute, and abundance.

​The arts are divided into three: the first, the second, and the third. Now the first kind is mining and woodcutting, for they are preparatory. Smithing and carpentry are transformative: for from iron smithing makes weapons, and carpentry from timber makes flutes and lyres. The user art is such as horsemanship using bridles, warfare using weapons, and music using flutes and the lyre. Of art, then, there are three forms: a first, a second, and a third.

​The good is divided into four genera: of which we say one is the person possessing virtue, being good in his own right; another we say is virtue itself and justice; a third is such as suitable nourishment, physical exercises, and medicines; and a fourth we say is good such as flute-playing, acting, and the like. Of the good, then, there are four forms: possessing virtue, virtue itself, beneficial nourishment and exercises, and fourth we say that flute-playing, acting, and poetry are good.

​Of existing things, some are bad, some good, and some neutral. Among these, we call bad those things which are able always to do harm, such as lack of judgment, folly, injustice, and the like; and the opposites of these are good. Those things which sometimes benefit and sometimes harm—such as walking, sitting, and eating—or are wholly capable neither of benefiting nor of harming, these at any rate are neither good nor bad. Of existing things, then, some are good, some bad, and some neutral between these.

​Good government (observance of good laws) is divided into three: one, if the laws are excellent, we say it is good government; another, if the citizens abide by the established laws, we say this too is good government; third, if in the absence of laws they conduct their civic life well according to customs and habits, this too we call good government. Of good government, then, one is that laws are excellent; another, if they abide by the existing laws; and third, if they conduct civic life with noble customs and habits. Lawlessness is divided into three: of which one is if the laws are wretched both toward foreigners and toward citizens;

​another, if they do not obey the existing laws; and another, if there is no law at all. Of lawlessness, then, one is that the laws are wretched; another, if they do not obey the existing ones; and third, if there is no law. Opposites are divided into three: for instance, we say goods are opposite to evils, as justice to injustice and prudence to folly, and the like. And evils are opposite to evils, such as prodigality to illiberality, and being tortured unjustly to being tortured justly; and such evils are opposite to evils. And heavy to light, quick to slow, and black to white are opposites as neutrals to neutrals.