Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers

​And he holds that gods oversee human affairs and that daemons exist. He was also the first to define the concept of the noble (or beautiful) as that which is linked to what is praiseworthy, rational, useful, fitting, and harmonious; all of which are linked to what is in accordance with nature and in agreement with it. He also treated of the correctness of names, so that he was the first to establish systematically the science of answering and asking questions correctly, having made extensive use of it. And in his dialogues he also regarded justice as the law of God, as being more powerful to urge men to do just deeds, so that they might not suffer punishment after death as evildoers.

​Hence by some he was also considered rather fond of myths for having blended such narratives into his writings, in order that through the uncertain manner of how things stand after death they might thus abstain from injustices. And these were the doctrines that pleased him. Moreover, Aristotle says that he divided things in this manner: of goods, some are in the soul, some in the body, and some external; for example, justice, prudence, courage, temperance, and the like are in the soul; beauty, physical fitness, health, and strength are in the body; and friends, the prosperity of one's fatherland, and wealth are among external goods.

​There are, then, three forms of goods: those in the soul, those in the body, and those that are external. Of friendship there are three forms: one natural, another companionable, and a third hospitable. We call natural, then, that which parents have toward their offspring and kinsmen toward one another; and of this the other animals also have a share. We call companionable that which arises from habitual association and has no connection with kinship, such as that of Pylades toward Orestes. Hospitable friendship is that which arises toward strangers from recommendation and through letters. Friendship, then, is partly natural, partly companionable, and partly hospitable; and some add a fourth, erotic friendship.

​Of the constitution there are five forms: one democratic, another aristocratic, a third oligarchic, a fourth royal, and a fifth tyrannical. Now the democratic form is that in which cities the multitude has mastery and chooses the magistrates and laws through itself. Aristocracy is that in which neither the rich nor the poor nor the famous rule, but the best men of the city preside. Oligarchy is when the offices are chosen on the basis of property assessments; for the rich are fewer than the poor. Of kingship, one kind is according to law, and another according to birth. The kingship in Carthage, then, is according to law; for it is venal.

​That in Lacedaemon and Macedonia, on the other hand, is according to birth; for they establish kingship from a certain lineage. Tyranny is that in which people are ruled by someone after having been deceived or forced. Of constitutions, then, one is democracy, another aristocracy, a third oligarchy, a fourth kingship, and a fifth tyranny. Of justice there are three forms: one concerning gods, another concerning men, and a third concerning the departed. For those who sacrifice according to the laws and care for holy places are clearly pious toward gods; those who repay loans and restore deposits act justly toward men; and those who take care of tombs clearly act so toward the departed. Of justice, then, one part is toward gods, another toward men, and another concerning the departed.