Nicomachean Ethics

​People also refer anger to courage; for those who, driven by anger, rush upon those who have wounded them, like wild beasts, also seem to be courageous, because the courageous are also high-spirited. For anger is most impetuous in rushing into dangers, whence Homer also says, “put strength into his passion,” and “roused his might and anger,” and “bitter wrath in his nostrils,” and “his blood boiled”; for all such expressions seem to signify the arousal and impulse of passion. Now, the courageous act for the sake of the noble, and passion cooperates with them; but wild beasts act from pain; for they act because they have been wounded or because they are frightened, since if they are in the forests, they do not attack. Therefore, they are not courageous because, driven by pain and passion, they rush towards danger without foreseeing any of the perils; since on this showing even asses would be courageous when they are hungry, for they do not leave their pasture even when beaten. Adulterers also do many daring things because of their desire. But the courage that is due to passion seems to be the most natural, and if it takes to itself choice and purpose, it is true courage. Indeed, men when angry feel pain, and when they exact vengeance they feel pleasure; but those who fight for these reasons are pugnacious, not courageous; for they do not act for the sake of the noble nor as reason directs, but from passion; yet they possess something very like courage. Nor indeed are those who are optimistic courageous; for they are confident in dangers because they have conquered often and many. But they resemble the courageous because both are confident; yet the courageous are confident for the reasons already stated, whereas the optimistic are so because they think they are the strongest and will suffer nothing. Drunken people also do something of this sort; for they become optimistic. But when things do not turn out as they expected, they flee; whereas it was the mark of a courageous person to endure things that are and appear terrifying to a human being, because it is noble to do so and disgraceful not to. Therefore also, to be fearless and undisturbed in sudden alarms seems to belong to a more courageous person than to be so in dangers that are foreseen; for it was more a result of character, because it depends less on preparation. For one might choose foreseen dangers even from calculation and reason, but sudden ones are chosen according to character. Those who are ignorant also appear courageous, and they are not far from the optimistic, but they are worse to the extent that they have no self-esteem, whereas the optimistic have it. Therefore, they also stand their ground for a certain time; but those who have been deceived, if they find out or suspect that the case is otherwise, they flee, as happened to the Argives when they fell in with the Lacedaemonians, mistaking them for Sicyonians. We have now described both the courageous and those who are thought to be courageous.