Nicomachean Ethics

​Now courage is indeed something of this sort, but five other kinds also are spoken of, under five modes. First, political courage; for this most resembles true courage. For citizens seem to endure dangers because of the penalties imposed by the laws and the reproaches they would incur, and because of the honors they receive; and for this reason those peoples seem to be most courageous among whom cowards are dishonored and the courageous are honored. Homer also portrays people of this sort, such as Diomedes and Hector: “Polydamas will be the first to cast reproach upon me;” and “For Hector will one day say, when speaking among the Trojans: ‘The son of Tydeus, by my hand...’” And this kind of courage most resembles the one described before, because it arises from virtue; for it arises from shame and from a desire for the noble (for it is for honor) and to avoid reproach, which is disgraceful. One might also class those who are compelled by their rulers in the same category; but they are worse to the extent that they act not from shame but from fear, and flee not what is disgraceful but what is painful. For their masters compel them, just as Hector does: “But whomsoever I shall see cowering far from the fight, it shall not be possible for him to escape the dogs.” And those who station men and beat them if they retreat do the same, as do those who draw them up in front of trenches and suchlike; for they all use compulsion. But one ought to be courageous not under compulsion, but because it is noble. Also, experience in each department is thought to be courage; whence Socrates also thought courage to be knowledge. Now, different people have this experience in different matters, and in war, the professional soldiers have it. For war seems to have many false alarms, which these men have especially observed; consequently, they appear courageous because others do not know the nature of these alarms. Again, they are best able to inflict damage and not suffer it, thanks to their experience, being able to use their weapons and having such as are best both for inflicting damage and for not suffering it. Therefore, they fight like armed men against unarmed, or like trained athletes against amateurs; for in such contests also it is not the most courageous who are the best fighters, but those who are strongest and have their bodies in the best condition. But professional soldiers become cowards when the danger exceeds their strength and they are deficient in numbers and equipment; for they are the first to flee, while the citizen-troops stand their ground and die, as happened at the temple of Hermes. For to the citizens, flight is disgraceful and death is preferable to such safety; but the professional soldiers from the very beginning faced danger only because they thought they were superior, and when they realize the truth they flee, fearing death more than disgrace. But the courageous person is not of this sort.