- Source
- Aristotle. Aristotelis Ars Rhetorica. Ross, William David, editor. Oxford: Clarendon Press,1959 (printing).
- Translation
- AI-generated (gemini-3.5-flash) — machine translation; may contain errors
- Languages
- 日本語 · English · 简体中文 · 한국어
- CTS URN
- urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0086.tlg038.humanitext-grc2:2.11.1-2.11.7
- Generated
- Humanitext Reader · reader.humanitext.ai · 2026-10-27
Defining "emulation" as a noble emotion contrasted with envy, the text discusses the characteristics of those prone to it, the goods and people that inspire emulation, and concludes with a discussion of its opposite, contempt.
πῶς δὲ ἔχοντες ζηλοῦσι καὶ τὰ ποῖα καὶ ἐπὶ τίσιν, ἐνθένδʼ ἐστὶ δῆλον· εἰ γάρ ἐστιν ζῆλος λύπη τις ἐπὶ φαινομένῃ παρουσίᾳ ἀγαθῶν ἐντίμων καὶ ἐνδεχομένων αὐτῷ λαβεῖν περὶ τοὺς ὁμοίους τῇ φύσει, οὐχ ὅτι ἄλλῳ ἀλλʼ ὅτι οὐχὶ καὶ αὑτῷ ἔστιν1 (διὸ καὶ ἐπιεικές ἐστιν ὁ ζῆλος καὶ ἐπιεικῶν, τὸ δὲ φθονεῖν φαῦλον καὶ φαύλων· ὁ μὲν γὰρ αὑτὸν παρασκευάζει διὰ τὸν ζῆλον τυγχάνειν τῶν ἀγαθῶν, ὁ δὲ τὸν πλησίον μὴ ἔχειν διὰ τὸν φθόνον), ἀνάγκη δὴ ζηλωτικοὺς μὲν εἶναι2 τοὺς ἀξιοῦντας αὑτοὺς ἀγαθῶν ὧν μὴ ἔχουσιν, ἐνδεχομένων αὐτοῖς λαβεῖν· οὐδεὶς γὰρ ἀξιοῖ τὰ φαινόμενα ἀδύνατα (διὸ οἱ νέοι καὶ οἱ μεγαλόψυχοι τοιοῦτοι).
In what state of mind people feel emulation, and at what things, and toward whom, is clear from what follows. For if emulation is a certain pain at the apparent presence of honorable goods which are possible for themselves to obtain, in the case of those who are their equals by nature, not because they belong to someone else, but because they do not also belong to themselves, (wherefore emulation is a noble thing and belongs to noble people, while envying is base and belongs to base people; for the former, through emulation, prepares himself to obtain the goods, while the latter, through envy, tries to prevent his neighbor from having them), it is indeed necessary that those who think themselves worthy of goods which they do not have, but which it is possible for them to obtain, are inclined to emulation; for no one thinks himself worthy of things that appear impossible (wherefore the young and the large-souled are of this kind).
καὶ οἷς ὑπάρχει τοιαῦτα ἀγαθὰ ἃ τῶν ἐντίμων ἄξιά ἐστιν ἀνδρῶν· ἔστι δὲ ταῦτα πλοῦτος καὶ πολυφιλία καὶ ἀρχαὶ καὶ ὅσα τοιαῦτα· ὡς γὰρ προσῆκον αὐτοῖς ἀγαθοῖς εἶναι,3 οἷα προσήκει τοῖς ἀγαθῶς ἔχουσι, ζηλοῦσι τὰ τοιαῦτα τῶν ἀγαθῶν. καὶ οὓς οἱ ἄλλοι ἀξιοῦσιν.
And those who possess such goods as are worthy of honored men; and these are wealth, abundance of friends, offices, and all such things; for, as if it were fitting for them to be good, since such goods belong to those who are in a good condition, they emulate such goods. And those whom others think worthy of them.
καὶ ὧν πρόγονοι ἢ συγγενεῖς ἢ οἰκεῖοι ἢ τὸ ἔθνος ἢ ἡ πόλις ἔντιμοι, ζηλωτικοὶ περὶ ταῦτα· οἰκεῖα γὰρ οἴονται αὑτοῖς εἶναι, καὶ ἄξιοι εἶναι τούτων.
And those whose ancestors, or relatives, or members of their household, or nation, or city are honored, are emulous about these things; for they think these goods belong to them, and that they are worthy of them.
εἰ δʼ ἐστὶν ζηλωτὰ τὰ ἔντιμα ἀγαθά, ἀνάγκη τάς τε ἀρετὰς εἶναι τοιαύτας, καὶ ὅσα τοῖς ἄλλοις ὠφέλιμα καὶ εὐεργετικά (τιμῶσι γὰρ τοὺς εὐεργετοῦντας καὶ τοὺς ἀγαθούς), καὶ ὅσων ἀγαθῶν ἀπόλαυσις τοῖς πλησίον ἔστιν, οἷον πλοῦτος καὶ κάλλος μᾶλλον ὑγιείας.
And if the honorable goods are the objects of emulation, it is necessary that the virtues are of this kind, and also all those things that are useful and beneficent to others (for they honor benefactors and good men), and all those goods the enjoyment of which belongs to one’s neighbors, such as wealth and beauty rather than health.
φανερὸν δὲ καὶ οἱ ζηλωτοὶ τίνες· οἱ γὰρ ταῦτα καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα κεκτημένοι ζηλωτοί· ἔστι δὲ ταῦτα τὰ εἰρημένα, οἷον ἀνδρεία σοφία ἀρχή (οἱ γὰρ ἄρχοντες πολλοὺς δύνανται εὖ ποιεῖν), στρατηγοί, ῥήτορες, πάντες οἱ τὰ τοιαῦτα δυνάμενοι.
It is also clear who those are who are emulated; for those who possess these and such goods are emulated; and these are the aforementioned, such as courage, wisdom, office (for those in office can do good to many), generals, rhetoricians, and all who have such power.
καὶ οἷς πολλοὶ ὅμοιοι βούλονται εἶναι, ἢ πολλοὶ γνώριμοι, ἢ φίλοι πολλοί, ἢ οὓς πολλοὶ θαυμάζουσιν, ἢ οὓς αὐτοὶ θαυμάζουσιν.
And those whom many equals wish to be like, or those who have many acquaintances, or many friends, or whom many admire, or whom they themselves admire.
καὶ ὧν ἔπαινοι καὶ ἐγκώμια λέγονται ἢ ὑπὸ ποιητῶν ἢ ὑπὸ λογογράφων. καταφρονοῦσιν δὲ τῶν ἐναντίων· ἐναντίον γὰρ ζήλῳ καταφρόνησίς ἐστι, καὶ τῷ ζηλοῦν τὸ καταφρονεῖν. ἀνάγκη δὲ τοὺς οὕτως ἔχοντας ὥστε ζηλῶσαί τινας ἢ ζηλοῦσθαι καταφρονητικοὺς εἶναι τούτων τε καὶ ἐπὶ τούτοις4 ὅσοι τὰ ἐναντία κακὰ ἔχουσι τῶν ἀγαθῶν τῶν ζηλωτῶν· διὸ πολλάκις καταφρονοῦσιν τῶν εὐτυχούντων, ὅταν ἄνευ τῶν ἐντίμων ἀγαθῶν ὑπάρχῃ αὐτοῖς ἡ τύχη. διʼ ὧν μὲν οὖν τὰ πάθη ἐγγίγνεται καὶ διαλύεται, ἐξ ὧν αἱ πίστεις γίγνονται περὶ αὐτῶν, εἴρηται.
And those of whom praises and encomiums are spoken either by poets or by prose-writers. And they look down upon their opposites; for contempt is the opposite of emulation, and looking down is the opposite of emulating. And it is necessary that those who are in such a state as to emulate certain people or to be emulated are contemptuous toward those, and on account of those things, whoever possess the opposite evils to the goods that are emulated; wherefore they often look down upon those who are fortunate, when their good fortune belongs to them without the honorable goods. Through what means, then, the emotions are produced and dissolved, and from what sources the proofs concerning them arise, has been stated.
- 1388aοὐχ ὅτι ἄλλῳ ἀλλʼ ὅτι οὐχὶ καὶ αὑτῷ ἔστιν
The construction οὐχ ὅτι... ἀλλʼ ὅτι... contrasts the psychological basis of emulation (ζῆλος) with envy (φθόνος), explaining that the pain is felt not because someone else has the goods (ἄλλῳ), but because they do not also belong to oneself (οὐχὶ καὶ αὑτῷ).
- 1388aεἰ γάρ ἐστιν ζῆλος ... ἀνάγκη δὴ ζηλωτικοὺς μὲν εἶναι
The apodosis (consequent) of the conditional clause starting with εἰ (εἰ γάρ ἐστιν ζῆλος...) is introduced by the main clause starting with ἀνάγκη δὴ ζηλωτικοὺς μὲν εἶναι... after a lengthy parenthetical insertion (διὸ καὶ ἐπιεικές ἐστιν...). This structure forms a single, extended logical period whose framework must be kept in mind across the parenthetical break.
- 1388b5ὡς γὰρ προσῆκον αὐτοῖς ἀγαθοῖς εἶναι
προσῆκον is the neuter accusative participle of the impersonal verb προσήκει, functioning as an accusative absolute meaning 'since it is fitting' or 'as if it were fitting'. The accompanying ὡς emphasizes their subjective belief that they ought to be virtuous or possess such goods.
- 1388b25καταφρονητικοὺς εἶναι τούτων τε καὶ ἐπὶ τούτοις
The adjective καταφρονητικός governs both the genitive τούτων and the prepositional phrase ἐπὶ τούτοις (with dative). τούτων refers to the people looked down upon, while ἐπὶ + dative indicates the ground or reason for this contempt (i.e., on account of those bad things).